Lectures on the course “Management Theory: History of Management Thought. History of managerial thought History of managerial thought and the emergence of scientific management

Topic 1 Introduction to Management Theory: History of Management Thought.

Definition of the concept of "management". Goals and objectives of the discipline. Subject and object of research. Prerequisites for the emergence of management. Human activity and the need for management. The origins of management activity in the ancient world. Cybernetics as the art of management. management revolutions.

The word "management" of English origin; its literal translation into Russian is "management".

The term "management" is used in various meanings:

1) professional management of the economic activity of the enterprise, which is carried out in a market economy and is aimed at extracting maximum profit with the rational use of resources

2) scientific management theory, a field of knowledge about the management of socio-economic processes

3) management can also be seen as acceptance management decisions. In this case, the word "management" is used to refer to the process.

4) management is understood as a management apparatus, consisting of leaders (managers) of different levels. Such a governing body is characterized by a hierarchical organization in which some leaders are subordinate to others.

The purpose and objectives of the discipline: to create a methodological basis for the subsequent study of both individual aspects of management, and for the formation of an integral worldview in relation to managerial problems in the field of organization management.

The object of research is the management system, the subject is problems in the organization of management, professionalism, motivation mechanisms, etc.

Management acts both as a science and as an art. As the science of management reveals the nature of managerial work, cause-and-effect relationships, factors and conditions for the joint work of people; studies economic relations in the sphere of production, distribution and exchange of material and non-material goods, is based on the knowledge and use of economic laws and patterns.

Understanding management as an art is based on taking into account the characteristics of the organization, as well as the specifics of each human personality that makes up this organization. Any organization is a complex, usually open, system, the functioning of which is influenced by many factors of the external and internal environment. Under these conditions, not every person, even a professionally trained one, is able to manage the activities of other people (team members), quickly make the right decision, take responsibility for this decision and put it into practice. This is precisely the problem of management as an art. To avoid such problems, the manager must rely on the science and art of management, combining them into a single process.

Management is a system that provides a complex process of functioning of a purposeful economic activity organization, the effective use for this of the factors of production (labor, capital and land) and finance, which is based, in turn, on a system of principles, functions, methods and organizational structure of management that are adequate to the corresponding conditions of its external environment.

As a process, management includes a number of sequential functions: planning, organizing, directing and controlling to achieve the goals of the organization, the coordinated use of human and material resources.

Through the performance of functions, managers provide conditions and organize the effective use of personnel labor, production apparatus, material and financial resources organizations

The human need for management was determined by the following factors:

One of the main reasons is the division of labor;

The division of labor is closely related to another factor - the technological complication of the production process;

The complexity of the structure of production.

Stages of management development

Giving a description of the surrounding world, we can distinguish three main components: inanimate nature, wildlife and human society. This division allows classification of management processes:

V inanimate nature(technical systems);

in wildlife (biological systems, organisms);

in human society (social systems). Technical systems management, those. machines, mechanisms, production and technical processes, as a rule, are called management of means of labor (things). This area of ​​management is the subject of study of technical sciences.

Process management, flowing into wildlife, studied by the natural sciences.

Control How impact on people's activities united in groups, teams, with their different interests, is the management of people (employees). This most complex area of ​​social systems management is the subject of study of the social (social) sciences.

Without management, no organization, no enterprise can succeed. However, management as an activity and as a science in the form in which we currently have it did not appear immediately. The practice of management is as old as the world. But today no one can say with a sufficient degree of certainty when the first elements of control arose. Apparently, the need for it arose when people began to live and hunt in groups. Much later, K. Marx would point out that

all directly social labor carried out on a comparatively large scale needs, to a greater or lesser extent, a management that establishes the coherence between individual works and performs general functions.

As soon as prehistoric people began to live in organized groups, they had a need for control in three areas human activity:

defensive - protection from wild animals and enemies;

political - establishing and maintaining order in the group;

economic - the production and distribution of limited resources: food, clothing, tools, weapons, etc.

At the first stage, when the groups of people were small, management in all areas was carried out by one person - the leader of this group. In the future, as the groups grew and the functions performed by them became more complex, the need arose for the division of labor and differentiation of functions. But it took centuries.

Ancient world

Egyptian pyramids built between 3000-2000 B.C. BC, are a clear evidence not only of the culture of the ancient Egyptians, but also of their managerial art. The construction of huge pyramids required, above all, clear planning. It was necessary to decide where, what size and how to extract the stone, how to transport it to the construction site. In addition, it was necessary to solve all organizational issues: when and with what transport to deliver stones to the construction site. The stones were cut down in winter and spring, and transported during the flood of the Nile. Thus, the issues of reducing construction costs were solved. The administration was also entrusted with coordinating the actions of tens of thousands of slaves, peasants and officials.

Insignificant sources that have come down to us testify to a rather broad understanding of the problems of government by the Egyptians, and in particular, the essence of power, the importance of style and methods of leadership. In the ancient written monument of Egypt - the book "Instruction of Ptahhotep", dated 2000-1555. BC, contains advice and recommendations that have not lost their relevance at the present time: “If you are the boss, be calm when you listen to the words of the petitioner; do not push him away before he eases his soul from what he wanted to tell you.

The ancient Greeks paid special attention to the organization and management of production processes, cared for a clear specialization of workers. In their speeches Plato said that a person cannot work equally well on stone, and on iron, and on wood. The bricklayer does not have to sharpen his own tool. He considered management to be the science of the general development of people, which should be based on universal reasonable laws. In the management of society, the main role should belong to politicians (kings) who oversee the human herd. At the same time, he singled out two types of supervision: titanic, based on force, and political, soft. Each member of society performs its specific functions, and the ruler weaves them into a harmonious whole.

Socrates gives an understanding of management as a special sphere of human activity. He said that the main thing in management is to put the right person in the right place and achieve the fulfillment of the tasks assigned to him. The current position, in essence, has not changed. As the authors of the textbook “Fundamentals of Management” note: “There is no organization without people. Without the right people, no organization can achieve its goals and survive.”

The linear structure of government was expressed in the system of government of the Roman Empire. Its main problem was the collection of taxes from all its parts, which are far removed from each other. Direct rule from Rome was extremely difficult. Therefore, in 284 AD. emperor Diocletian divided the empire into 101 provinces, all of which were reduced to 12 dioceses, and those, in turn, into four geographical regions. Diocletian and his three assistants led these regions. Assistants had certain powers and rights in dealing with civil matters, but military power was strictly centralized. The change in the management structure made it possible to strengthen the power of the Roman Empire.

How far management thought advanced in ancient Rome can be shown by the example of the farm management system used there. For example, Cato the Elder(234-149 BC) wrote about the need to plan work on a farm on whole year forward. He spoke about the mandatory control over the work done, about the need to compare the program and the results, about finding out the reasons for not fulfilling the plan, about the rational organization of work.

The ideas in the field of management put forward by the thinkers of the Ancient East are interesting. From the ancient Indian treatise "Arthamastra" (IV-III centuries BC) it is clear that such sciences as philosophy, the doctrine of economy and the doctrine of public administration have been developed. in Sanskrit art of management is called "dan-daniti", literally translated "guide to owning a stick" (in Sanskrit, a stick is danda).

The organizations of the Ancient World were characterized by:

relatively not a large number of managers, the virtual absence of middle managers;

managerial work is often not distinguished and separated from non-management activities;

positions of heads of organizations were most often occupied by birthright or by force;

few large organizations.

However, it should be noted that in ancient times large organizations had formal management structures with clearly defined levels of management. The leaders of these organizations spent a certain amount of effort to coordinate their activities. Organizations forged links with other organizations, which contributed to their achievement of some success.

Middle Ages and Modern Times

In management practice, there are examples of organizations that arose in the Middle Ages and are successfully functioning at the present time thanks to the creation of a rational management structure. These include the Roman Catholic Church, which has the simplest governance structure: pope, cardinal, archbishop, bishop, and parish priest. Modern military organizations also have a structure similar to that of the Catholic Church. The presence of effective governance structures allows these organizations to successfully develop and prosper, while many modern organizations with weak governance structures decline or even cease to exist.

Management theory in the ancient world was poorly developed. Basically, management was carried out in practice, mostly by trial and error. There was also an exchange of experience and ideas among rulers, church leaders, and military leaders.

A significant contribution to the development of problems of state administration and legal doctrines was made by the Italian statesman and politician Niccolo Machiavelli(1469-1527). In his works, he dealt with the issues of studying the style of work of the leader, the organization of his work, the relationship between managers and subordinates.

In the era of Peter I in Russia, exceptional conditions developed for strengthening the centralized state. The reforms carried out by Peter I were aimed at achieving the "common good". The power of the sovereign was interpreted as unlimited and above the law. The “Military Article” says: “The sovereign should not give an answer to anyone in the world about his affairs, but he has his own states and lands with strength and power ... govern according to his will with piety.” The reforms of Peter 1 concerned public administration.

Unfortunately, the evolution of managerial thought in Russia during this period has not been sufficiently studied. The experience of managing plants in Siberia and the Urals is known. In the book of the head of the main plants in Siberia and the Urals, V.I. Gennin touches upon issues that have not lost their relevance at the present time: long-term planning, accounting and reporting, leadership style and qualities of a leader, etc. Gennin describes a model of a leader in which the main place is given to his organizational skills and personal qualities (honesty, hard work, common sense, sober calculation, diligence). These qualities are important for a modern leader.

In the conditions of capitalist and feudal societies, the need to study management problems was limited. The main attention was paid to solving the problems of state administration.

The basis of the existence of feudal society was subsistence farming. Slaves and serfs were in complete personal dependence on the will and power of the owner, which did not stimulate the growth of labor productivity.

Industrial Revolution and Industrial Relations

The revolution in production relations is associated with the industrial revolution, which began in the middle of the 18th century. First half of the 19th century characterized by the emergence of capitalism, first in England, and then in the United States and Europe. In the 80s. 19th century The Industrial Revolution swept across North America, and an unprecedented economic "boom" began. There was a transition from relatively small handicraft workshops to large-scale machine production, in which a large number of unskilled and semi-skilled workers were employed.

The industrial revolution is associated with the allocation of three levels of management: upper, middle and lower. A master appeared in production.

IN management practice At that time, an authoritarian leadership style, inhuman exploitation of workers and unlimited arbitrariness in relation to subordinates flourished widely. The foreman's power over workers was essentially unlimited, from setting production targets to hiring, moving, and firing workers. The foreman set the length of the working day and the value of the production rate, controlled all the actions of the workers, fined them and punished them. Especially in the first period of the development of factory production, management is characterized by strict discipline and the construction of organizations according to the military type. The task of industrial management was to achieve a high return on the labor of workers. At this stage in the development of management, there has only been an emerging trend transition from the principle of supervision of workers to the principle of organizing labor on a scientific basis.

The Industrial Revolution gave impetus to the development of theoretical research and management practice.

As a result of the cognitive activity of people, what we call the modern theory of management arose. She (theory) has a thousand-year history. The history of managerial thought teaches correct use ideas and accumulated experience of management in modern efforts. The study of the history of managerial thought is required condition combating the "syndrome of self-sufficiency" of a manager, when a person involved in management believes that he knows everything. The study of the history of managerial thought requires a specific creative approach.

a) it is necessary to judge the theorists and practitioners of management of the past not by what they did not give in comparison with modern management requirements, but by what they gave new in comparison with their predecessors;

b) every beginning is always empty, poor in content, it is only a tendency to accumulate all content. From this point of view it is necessary to approach the evolution of managerial thought.

The emergence of managerial thought in ancient Egypt and BabylonManagement thought arises already in primitive society, where people accumulate the first experience of managing small social communities (family, clan, tribe). People have the first experience of optimizing relationships. In ancient Egypt, both building art and pottery developed, papyrus was created, astronomy developed, a calendar appeared, the foundations of geometry and algebra were laid, medicine and anatomy arose. People on the construction of the pyramids gained the first experience of management large organizations. The construction of the pyramids dates back to the III millennium BC.

Management Thought in Ancient ChinaFeatures of Management Thought in Ancient China

1. It is recorded in written literary sources. Written by specific people, not anonymously;

2. Reflects the mentality of the Chinese, their culture. Mechanical extrapolations are not possible;

3. Management ideas do not reflect the experience of managing production, but political organizations (the state).

Where is management thought going? For centuries, the idea of effective organization production, ranging from personal farming to the state economy, occupied the minds of practitioners and economists, sociologists, historians, political scientists, lawyers, etc. Naturally, by now, vast experience and theoretical knowledge has been accumulated in managing the national economy at all levels. There are various concepts, theories, teachings, scientific schools controls developed by many generations of scientists different countries. It is also obvious that in the organization of various kinds of business, along with many features, there is much in common.

The task of the first international scientific and practical conference on the history of management thought and business included an inventory of management ideas in the past, an analysis of their state and effectiveness in the present, as well as a forecast for the emergence of new management paradigms in the future. The questions included in the program related to the organization of economic management in different eras, in various types of business, in countries with developed, developing and transitional economies. The reports were grouped into three topics - the evolution of managerial thought, modern concepts business and management ideas tomorrow.

The evolution of managerial thought. Professor V. Marshev (Moscow State University) in the plenary report “Managerial Ideas. History of management paradigms. Formation of the history of managerial thought” noted that managerial thought went through three major stages - management in police states (7th century BC - the end of the 18th century), legal (end of the 18th - mid-19th centuries) and cultural (mid-19th centuries). - the beginning of the 20th century). Among the representatives of all directions, one should also name the names of our compatriots (sometimes little known to the scientific community), such as Y. Krizhanich, M. Speransky, I. Platonov, V. Goltsev, V. Ivanovsky, D. Pikhno. The speaker then briefly described the numerous schools scientific management XX century, in which the ideas of domestic and foreign predecessors essentially developed.

A hypothesis is put forward about the existence of a certain regularity in the development of managerial thought, the emergence and change of schools and teachings, embodied in the practice of production management. The essence of the pattern is that, firstly, each subsequent school arose and replaced the previous one as a result of dialectical contradictions that arose in the latter and were insoluble by it; secondly, the root cause of contradictions has always been a person or human communities, more precisely, the importance that was attached to the human factor in the studies of the corresponding school. The first component of the regularity is an analogue of Gödel's incompleteness theorem and is of a universal nature for the development of managerial thought. The second one is concrete-subjective and can serve both as a tool for studying the history of managerial thought (more precisely, measuring the content of a particular school), and as a means of predicting the “historical moment” of the emergence of the next school based on a kind of cyclical development of managerial thought.

Associate Professor D. Platonov (Moscow State University) formulated the relationship between objective development National economy and the corresponding scientific and practical doctrine of management. In his opinion, the national economy is not only an environment that generates ideas, including managerial ones. This is also a special environment in which many of them are implemented, which is often hidden from researchers of macroeconomics, developers economic theories due to the generality of the subjects of their research. In other words, research in the field of the history of the national economy and the history of managerial ideas are interconnected, interdependent and enrich each other.

Professors of the State Academy of Management G. Latfullin and Y. Radchenko emphasized the importance of research and reconstruction of Russia's rich historical heritage in the development of organizational ideas. According to the speakers, the action organizational laws, underlying the principles of economic activity, are much longer in time and wider in space than other social laws (including economic ones), and therefore they are more general.

The report is illustrated with examples from the works of Russian educators, statesmen, organizers of production and scientists, as well as cultural monuments (chronicles, princely charters, etc.), in which organizational thoughts, views, ideas and concepts were manifested or formulated, which have not lost their relevance today. In particular, the “Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik” (XIII century) is mentioned, which contains such elements of management theory as the concepts of hierarchy, competence of leaders, goal-setting priorities, etc. In the works of M. Speransky (early XIX century), the concept of “rules for organizing management ”, organizational categories “responsibility”, “planning and control”, “separation of powers”, “decision-making process”, “management methods” are formulated. In the works of the Russian mining engineer K.Skalkovsky, a number of management ideas and paradigms were discovered, which actually anticipated the emergence of similar provisions in the West, including those widely known as “Parkinson's law” or “Peter's principle”.

The report of Associate Professor A. Naumov (Moscow State University) “Hofstede’s dimension of Russia (the impact of national culture on business management)” reported on one of the first attempts at a major sociological study with the aim, firstly, of identifying and measuring the characteristics of Russian national culture and, secondly, , determining the influence of national culture (as more general concept) to other levels of culture and, above all, organizational and managerial. In the course of the survey, 250 respondents - citizens of Russia were interviewed using a questionnaire developed by the author, which contains 29 groups of questions characterizing five indicators (measurements) of national culture proposed by the Dutch scientist G. Hofsteed.

Management ideas tomorrow. In the report “Economic Reforms and Anti-Crisis Management in Russia in Transition”, Professor S. Belyaev expressed the idea that the crisis in production was a consequence, not a cause of the crisis in management. The processes of economic liberalization, privatization and corporatization took place without a sufficiently developed legal basis, in the absence of a bankruptcy law. As a result, privatization dragged on and led to the current results.

Today, according to the speaker, the problem is not to improve the process and legal procedures of bankruptcy, but to improve the methods of managing enterprises that are close to bankruptcy. Hence the term “anti-crisis management”, which is not a synonym for “competitive management”, “external management”, carried out through judicial (arbitration) bodies.

Crisis management involves the preparation and use of teams of arbitration managers at the enterprise. The objects of management should be traditional functional areas - personnel, strategic planning, marketing, finance, production, and management itself should not be defensive in nature (reduction of production, market, personnel), but active - aggressive marketing, development of new business and strategy, retraining of personnel, etc.

Further, the speaker compared the characteristics of a professor of management of the past and the future. In the past, this person is highly specialized, highly professional, focused on the transfer of knowledge, distant from students, feeling superior to them in knowledge, acting within the framework of the curriculum and program. In the future, this is a person capable of integrating different knowledge, actively involved in the learning process with the help of new technologies, and, consequently, in relationships with students. He is more of a coordinator than a mentor, developer and “implementer” of the business school strategy.

The period of 60-80s was characterized by the development of a systemic representation of control in statics and dynamics. Significant results have been achieved in socio-psychological studies of management. At the same time, organizational behavior, development and culture, and situational management remained unexplored.

In the 80-90s, the main objects of research were managerial relations, organizational behavior, organizational culture, situationality and changes. Learning organizations have emerged, adapting to change. At the same time, despite the development of the benchmarking tool, there are still no achievements in solving the problem of “who is the best in management”.

TOPIC 9 MANAGEMENT - SCIENCE PRACTICE

As a result of studying this chapter, the student should:

know the essence of management, stages and schools in the development of management thought, the modern management paradigm;

be able to apply systemic, situational and process approaches in management;

own skills of the right approach to management in accordance with the real situation.

The essence of management

Modern organizations are complex socio-technical or socio-economic systems operating in conditions of high uncertainty and instability of the external environment, huge risks and dynamically changing states of the market environment. The conditions for the functioning of organizations determine the roles, functions and tasks for managing such organizations, predetermine new requirements for the manager's profession.

There is an opinion that the term "management" is difficult to understand, as it is typically American and cannot be literally translated into any other language.

Recently, the term "management" has become very widespread. Various definitions are given in the literature. Let's consider some of them.

Management(from English. management - management, management, organization) - a set of principles, methods, means and forms of production management, developed in order to increase production efficiency and increase profits.

Management- the ability to achieve goals, using the work, intelligence and behavioral motives of other people working in the organization.

Management can be represented as a formula:

management = art + experience + training.

Let us explain the above formula.

Of course, production management requires special, innate abilities. These abilities develop as a result practical activities with gaining experience. Experience, in turn, is accumulated in a practical way, through trial and error or by methods of intensive development of experience, i.e. through training. Management training is an analysis of a large number of management situations, direct participation in management games, internships in large firms etc.

The term "management" is not usually used to refer to public or public administration("government administration" or "public administration"). It is applied to the management of socio-economic processes at the level of a firm operating in market conditions, although recently it has been applied to non-entrepreneurial organizations as well.

Manager(from English. manager ) is a hired professional manager, management specialist.

Any engineer or economist involved in management cannot be considered a manager. A manager is a person with special training. The main tasks of the manager:

• coordination;
• management;
• control;
• making decisions.

The manager begins his activity by studying the object to be managed and selecting a team.

The emergence of the profession of manager is historically associated with the emergence of organizations of the "manager" type, i.e. such organizations where the ownership and management of the given property are separated. It is believed that this process is associated with the consequences of the Great industrial revolution(Great Industrial Revolution) in England at the end of the 18th century, more precisely, in the 80–90s of the 18th century. in the counties of Yorkshire, Likeshire and the industrial center of Manchester. The consequences of the Great Industrial Revolution include: the enlargement of production (manufactories and handicraft workshops were replaced by factories and factories), the concentration of capital (in the textile industry) and, as a result, the emergence of "manager" type organizations.

There was no managerial profession at that time, although there was a need for it. Because of this, the work of a manager was best handled by engineers, accountants and entrepreneurs (businessmen).

At the same time, no engineer or economist, specialist but personnel work occupied by management or leadership, to be considered a manager.

In addition, one must realize from the very beginning that management and entrepreneurship are two different aspects of the same process. A business is an activity aimed at making a profit by creating and selling certain products or services. An entrepreneur who does not know how to manage is doomed to failure. "Business management" is the management of commercial, economic organizations.

The term "management" is applicable to any type of organization, but when it comes to government bodies any level, it is more correct to use the term "public administration" - " public administration". At the same time, the words "entrepreneur" ("businessman") and "manager" are not synonymous. The entrepreneur assumes the risk of organizing a new enterprise ( entrepreneurial risk), i.e. bears financial responsibility. The manager of his property is not responsible for the obligations of the company headed by him. Its risk is in the area business reputation, image and (or) the criminal law sphere.

An entrepreneur at a certain stage in the development of an organization (corporation, re-registration into an open company, additional issues of shares, etc.) can hire a manager to manage it. On this basis, the theory of "managerism" arose, according to which control over production passed from private owners to hired managers - managers.

There are other theories according to which the power of owners over corporations and banks is being eliminated and transferred to managers, technocrats.

So in the 30s. 20th century in the works of A. Burley and G. Means, the theory of "administrative revolution" arose, which in the 40s. developed by D. X. Burnham, in the 60–70s. - J. Galbraith and others. This theory is closely related to the theory of "people's capitalism", the theory of convergence and a number of others.

The specificity of the manager's profession is the fact that the manager is a person with special training. This follows from the tasks that this specialist is obliged to solve.

The main tasks of the manager:

• coordination;
• management;
• control;
• making decisions.

The manager solves all these problems simultaneously, what distinguishes the profession of a manager from related or similar professions. The manager begins his activity by studying the object to be managed and selecting a team.

In addition, there are new challenges associated with the development of information and Internet technologies. According to Peter Drucker, the emergence of "manager-type" organizations in the 18th-19th centuries. led to the emergence of management and the profession of manager. Modern "shell" and virtual organizations, as well as advances in information technology will lead to the emergence of a new management profession virtual organizations and information. And if the first stage of management development was called "engineering", then the first stage of the new profession will be called "management", since managers are still the best at this job.

Considering the features of managerial labor, it should be emphasized that, like the labor of workers, it is necessary and productive labor. But at the same time it has a special productive form. Those engaged in managerial work do not directly create material values, but, by carrying out the technical and organizational preparation of production, improving the methods of planning and economic work, forms financial incentives, solving commercial problems, realize their activities in the product of labor of the total worker. Without their labor, modern production is impossible.

An important factor in improving the effectiveness of management is the division of labor of managers, i.e. specialization of managerial employees in the performance of certain types of activities.

Consider the types of division of labor of managers:

• 1) functional (groups of managers who perform the same functions);
• 2) structural;
• 3) vertical - allocation of three levels of management:
  • - the lowest (the head of the brigade, shift, section);
  • - middle (managers of staff and functional service control apparatus);
  • – higher (enterprise administration);
• 4) horizontal in functional areas (production, finance, marketing, personnel, R&D, etc.).

This division of labor of managers is associated with three management tools, which in modern organizations are interpreted through the corresponding types of links:

• 1) hierarchy - relations of leadership and subordination, which are most often implemented through coercion (force, fear, etc.). This tool has a history slightly less than the history of mankind itself and has been preserved in almost any organization in the form linear connections characterizing the vertical principle of organizational structures;
• 2) market - free exchange of equivalent values, which is associated with economic methods management and incentives to work. The appearance of this tool is explained by the development of capitalist relations and the spread of the machine nature of production. In organizations, it is clearly manifested in horizontal, functional relationships that explain the nature of the division of labor;
• 3) culture - a certain system of values ​​and traditions on which forms of activity and norms of behavior are built, characterized by the use of socio-psychological methods of influence, and an emphasis on social aspects interactions. Culture is most often manifested in informal, trusting relationships that explain not so much organizational structures as the direction of communication processes both vertically and horizontally. This tool impact on people is the "youngest" from a historical point of view, and its appearance is explained by the change in the nature of labor that occurred in the second half of the last century.

It should be noted that at present the greatest importance is attached to the organizational, or corporate, culture.

Hierarchy, or the relationship of leadership and subordination, traditionally, since the time of M. Weber, who first proposed this classification are characterized by three levels of control.

• 1. Strategic level (top management; from English. top-manager ). At this level, the top management of the company sets strategic goals and objectives, formulates policies, ensures planning of the organization's activities, control and other management functions. A feature of top management is the performance of representative functions, when it is the leaders top management"voice" the policy and goals of the organization.
• 2. On middle level, it is also called the "level of departments and departments" (middle management; from English, middle manager ), the same work is carried out, but within the limits of its competence. Distinctive feature The middle level of management is to provide communication processes both from top to bottom, i.e. "deciphering" and detailing the decisions taken at the strategic level in the form of orders, instructions, instructions, circulars, etc., as well as from the bottom up, i.e. collection, accumulation, sublimation and aggregation of primary information, bringing it into a form convenient for decision-making.

It should be noted that with the development of telecommunications and Internet technologies, there is a "flattening" of organizational structures due to the "washing out" of middle managers.

3. Grassroots (low management; from English, low manager or first line manager ) refers to those managers who are responsible at least for the unit and consists of those managers who have no other managers in their subordination ( management process ), as well as individual specialists performing individual functions and (or) tasks of management ( management functions ), but managers who are not by definition (inspectors, engineers, accountants, etc.).

The levels of management and their specifics can be illustrated using the "Magic Square" shown in Fig. 1.1, which in a humorous, sarcastic way gives an idea of ​​​​how the work of managers is seen different levels their subordinates.

It should be noted that the functions and responsibilities of a higher-ranking leader are never equal to the sum of the functions and responsibilities of his subordinates, i.e. there are a number of issues, the solution of which is in the exclusive competence of the head. In other words, even all employees of the department, in terms of competence and authority, cannot replace one line manager.

Rice. 1.1. "Magic Square"

© Faculty of Economics, Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, 2005

© Design. INFRA-M, 2005

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250th Anniversary of the Moscow State University. M.B. Lomonosov is dedicated

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Dear reader!

This textbook is published as part of the series “Textbooks of the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov”, crowning the long-term efforts of the faculty staff to update the content and structure of university economic education.

The transition of the country to the market required a revision of the profession of an economist, the development and application of previously unclaimed knowledge, known, perhaps, only to a limited circle of critics of "bourgeois" economic thought.

To enrich the content of economic education by including new economic disciplines and updating a number of traditional ones, it was necessary to retrain teachers and solve the problem of textbooks. The first attempts to include new disciplines in the curricula showed the impossibility of this within a single stage, therefore, updating the content, we had to simultaneously solve the problem of transferring education to a two-stage system.

The past 10 plus years are the years of mastering the technology of two-stage education "bachelor - master", which the faculty carries out without parallel training of specialists. The accession of the country to the Bologna process made this transition irreversible.

All these years, the retraining of the teaching staff was carried out: thanks to the programs of international cooperation, about 160 teachers of the faculty, on average, trained at the best foreign universities at least twice.

As for textbooks, the first years had to use the best foreign textbooks, many of which were translated by teachers into Russian. Now it's time to prepare high-quality domestic textbooks. The teaching corps has the opportunity to create original textbooks and teaching aids, prepared taking into account teaching experience and differentiated by the level of training of students (textbooks for bachelor's programs and textbooks for master's programs).

The participation of the faculty in the Innovation Project of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, financed by the World Bank, also contributed to the solution of this problem. The National Training Fund became the direct executor of the project.

Thanks to this project, the faculty implemented its project “Improving higher economic education at Moscow State University” for three years, as a result of which the teachers of the economic faculty prepared 74 textbooks and teaching aids in the main disciplines that shape the professions of economists and managers.

We believe that these textbooks fully reflect the most important achievements of university economic thought, which are necessary for the full-fledged training of economists and top managers.

Now more than 3,000 students are studying at the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University, the faculty has the largest master's program in economics in the country, the largest number of graduate students in economic specialties. The educational "field" includes more than 300 general disciplines and special courses. Part of the general courses is presented in this series of textbooks.

The faculty staff will gratefully accept comments and suggestions regarding the improvement of the proposed series of textbooks.

V.P. Kolesov

Dean of the Faculty of Economics, Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov, Professor, Doctor of Economics

Foreword

Dedicated to parents, wife and children

This textbook will deal with the centuries-old world history managerial thought, the origins of which are found in materials dating back to the 4th millennium BC. e. Turning to the history of real management and ideas about management is every time a test of one's own hypotheses and ideas, the search for analogues of decisions, the evaluation of decisions made. In today's booming business environment, virtually every business magazine you can find quotations from historical manuscripts of ancient thinkers, statements by heads of state and military commanders of the past about managing people, about relationships with subordinates, about strategy and tactics of management, about power, conflicts and leadership, about control and accounting in management, and about many other still relevant management problems.

The question is: “Why leaf through the chronicle of past knowledge? Why should we look to the past in order to prepare for the future?” The answer is quite simple: “Yes, because there is nowhere else to look!”

At the same time, in the society of managers, the study of historical works on management has always been considered an exercise in excess. In an era of almost turbulent changes in the external environment and drastic changes in one's own organizations, it is very difficult to force oneself to look for answers or advice in the works of ancient thinkers and even their compatriots who lived 100-200 years ago. Eventually modern managers and even management theorists began to gradually forget F. Taylor's ideas about the study of work movements - and today we present the idea of ​​​​the rational distribution of manager's time as a discovery of science; they began to forget the law of A. Fayol about the functions of management - and today we are struggling to explain the stability of the functional organizational structures of management; little promoted the general organizational science (tectology) of A. Bogdanov - and today we admire the naive reasoning about synergistic effects and defects in mergers and acquisitions of corporations, etc., etc.

These examples refer to the history of management ideas, but there are no fewer facts in the history of real management that could be useful lessons for those who are ready to learn from it. The modern educated manager cannot afford to disregard wise advice regardless of the time of origin of the source of this advice - be it Sun Tzu's advice on strategic management, expressed in the 5th century BC. e., or the recommendations of the ancient Romans on the management agricultural holding, or the SWOT analysis technique developed by management consultants in the 70s of the XX century.

In this textbook we will talk about the history of the ideas of managing any social object. The object of management will be understood as an organization as a set of two or more people united common goals, using various kinds of resources, transforming resources into products (goods or services) and exchanging (realizing) products for necessary resources to maintain its existence and development. Management of the organization will be understood as a conscious purposeful impact on the organization.

Examples organizations are state enterprises, public associations, private companies of various sizes, different regional and industry affiliation, family, state, society as a whole. As organization goals considers ensuring the welfare and security of members of the organization, rational housekeeping, meeting the needs of members of the organization, maximizing profits, increasing the value of the company, penetrating new markets, meeting customer needs. Examples organization resources- finance, people, raw materials, land, semi-finished products, components, scientific developments, information, time.

Based on the definition of the organization, we can hypothesize that the management of the organization is one of the ancient species human activity, since from the moment two people appeared on Earth, there was a need for a purposeful impact of one of them on the other. If this is so, then, obviously, over the entire period of its existence, mankind has accumulated both vast practical experience and many management ideas. Today it is necessary to search for these ideas, identify, collect, store, process, analyze, synthesize, systematize and, if possible, apply them in solving modern management problems. After reviewing the material of the textbook, the reader will be convinced that for many millennia the problem of effective and rational management of an organization has been one of the vital and worried both the minds of practitioners - business executives, statesmen, production organizers, military commanders, entrepreneurs, and scientists - philosophers, jurists , political scientists, sociologists, psychologists, economists, managers, historians, etc.

Management problems have been and remain in the focus of attention of business circles, political elites, the public, educators, and management consultants. Representatives of these communities were often the authors and implementers of management ideas. The main motives for the search, formation and development of management ideas have always been to ensure the well-being, well-being and safety of members social organization(families, enterprises, states, societies), and hence the increase in the effectiveness of managerial decisions, continuous improvement management of the organization, increasing the efficiency, vital activity of organizations. It is this process of emergence, formation and development of managerial ideas over a long time interval in various regions of the world that this textbook is devoted to.

Of course, proceeding from the principle “one cannot grasp the immensity”, far from all even the already known ideas and concepts of management are included in the textbook, and the works of not all scientists are characterized. Nevertheless, along with well-known authors and typical, most popular concepts, the textbook also presents little-known authors and their developments in management problems.

This textbook attempts to analyze and synthesize theoretical and applied developments on the management of various organizations in different specific historical eras. The authors of the developments were representatives of the civilizations of the Ancient East, China, India, Greece and Rome, the feudal states of the Middle Ages, the first capitalist states, the modern states of Germany, England, Austria, the USA, Russia, etc. Covering a long historical period (4th millennium BC . e. - beginning of XXI c.) and being limited by the volume of the textbook, the author did not always compare the material presented or comparative analysis considered points of view on management and referred the reader to the relevant literature or the implementation of independent scientific research and projects on the proposed topic (see Appendix 1.).

Main difference this textbook from published works on the history of managerial thought lies in the fact that it presents not only systematized views on management, but also some interesting "elemental" ideas and concepts of management that have been applied in real practice. Thus, the textbook presents not only and even not so much the history of management science as the history of management ideas, views, theories that constantly arose in order to solve real management problems of a certain class. That is why the beginning of the presentation dates back to the most ancient available textbook written sources of human thought, where the first thoughts about managing an economy or organizations were found. And for the same reason, the textbook presents ideas and concepts related to individual elements, characteristics and aspects of the management system (methods, functions, goals, personnel, motivation, organizational structures management, decision-making processes, power, leadership, conflicts, strategic management, organizational development, organizational changes and etc.). And finally, to a greater extent than in similar textbooks published so far, domestic management thought is presented, which has not been adequately reflected in either Western or domestic literature.

Logic and structure of the textbook. The extensive material on the history of managerial thought (HIM) can be presented in different ways, depending on the chosen logic. In turn, the choice of presentation logic is determined primarily by subject area(more on this in Section 1.2). In connection with the general question of logic, particular questions arise relating to the most important factors and features of the chosen logic of presentation. More precisely, the following question arises:

Which (or which) of the factors listed below should be chosen as the main one in the presentation educational material:

Time (and then to present the material filiatively, chronologically);

Personalities (as they recently write about management gurus);

Branches of the economy (branch management concepts);

Countries (regional management concepts);

Business size (small, medium, large);

Organizational and legal form of organization (state, public, private, mixed organizations);

Control systems in general (synthetic theories);

Control functions and/or other elements of the control system (one-dimensional theories);

Functional areas of the organization (i.e. development of views on the management of marketing, finance, personnel, etc.);

Aspects of management (economic, legal, political, psychological, sociological, etc.);

Other Historical and Scientific Researches (HIS) - the history of economic, political, legal, sociological, administrative and other teachings (comparative approach);

Theories of organizations (theoretical-organizational approach);

Management paradigms (in the style of I.T. Prigozhin, N.A. Kuhn and other science scholars);

Backgrounds (civil history, economics, politics, sociology, demography)?

The list of factors can be continued, but when presenting the material, only one factor is chosen as the main one. Of course, a combined approach to the presentation of educational material is also possible, in some sections we used it. This is connected, on the one hand, with the desire for a systematic and multifaceted presentation, and on the other hand, with the presence of little-studied areas of IUM, gaps and "white spots" in IUM when choosing any factor.

When presenting, we tried to answer the main questions of IUM: “Why and for what purpose was this or that idea of ​​management proposed? Why was it proposed at this particular time? Why in this particular place? Why did this person turn out to be the author of the idea? Considering that the textbook is intended for bachelors and masters, we tried to present it in a fairly simple and plain language, with good historical references, an anthology, a fairly complete bibliography, regardless of the chosen logic of presentation. For those who are interested in research on IUM, at the end of the textbook, the topics of abstracts - scientific projects (see Appendix I) are proposed.

Textbook plan. The textbook consists of 8 chapters. The 1st chapter presents the main methodological issues of the formation and development of the history of managerial thought (HIM). First of all, the relevance of increasing the scientific character in making managerial decisions is emphasized, the general and specific characteristics of IUM as a scientific, applied and academic discipline, the role and place of IUM in the history of other sciences, questions of organization of research and development methods of IUM, source study and other problems of IUM.

The 2nd chapter characterizes the main sources and origins of world management thought over several centuries - from the birth of the first human civilizations to the beginning of the era of early feudalism; the administrative aspects of the monuments of administrative thought of the Ancient World - treatises of thinkers, statesmen, heads of households, public, religious and military figures are revealed.

The 3rd chapter continues the description of the main directions and works, which reflect the development of managerial ideas, views and concepts in the era of feudalism, the genesis and formation of capitalism in Western countries. This chapter reflects, perhaps, one of the first special treatises on management, the authors of which were the organizers of production, statesmen, scientists, representatives high school, including the first business schools.

Chapter 4 analyzes the genesis and development of managerial thought in Russia in the 9th–18th centuries. The authors of ideas here are statesmen and religious figures, scientists, representatives of various estates and classes of Russia, including representatives of the emerging third estate. The sources were ancient chronicles and legends, legislative acts, monographs of scientists and thinkers, archival documents and memoirs.

Chapter 5 reflects the development of managerial thought in Russia in the 19th century. At this time, the works of M. Speransky appeared, departments of chamberlists were opened for the first time in Russian universities, treatises on the management of representatives of higher education were published, materials of all-Russian commercial and industrial and industry congresses were discussed, at which actual problems management, management reforms were carried out, headed by Russian statesmen.

The 6th chapter presents the main Western schools of management of the 20th century. In all famous works in the history of social thought, this era is referred to as the era of scientific management. The characteristics of management schools show both their continuity with the management ideas of the past, and their fundamental nature in terms of manifestation in future management theories and concepts.

The 7th chapter is devoted to the history of Soviet management thought - from the works of the propagandists of the Taylor system to the original works of Soviet scientists and management practitioners on issues of effective management planned socialist economy.

Chapter 8 gives a description of modern management theories based on the achievements of socio-psychological research, and several new management concepts, some of which are still staged.

In preparing the textbook, with their advice and suggestions, the author's colleagues, employees of the departments of production management and the history of the national economy of the Faculty of Economics of Lomonosov Moscow State University, provided invaluable professional assistance. M.V. Lomonosov, participants of the international conference on IUM, regularly organized at Moscow State University. And, of course, this textbook would not have been written without the assistance and financial support of the World Bank.

The author expresses his gratitude to Professor Gavriil Kharitonovich Popov, who blessed me with research on the history of managerial thought, and to his friend Boris Anatolyevich Korobov, who convinced me that the history of management and managerial thought is a necessary and sufficient means not only of scientific proof of the past, but also explanations of the present and even possible prediction of the future in the management of human communities.

Table 1. Comparison of characteristics of Japanese and Western cultures

Topic 3. Managerial thought and practice in the early civilizations of the East
With the creation of the first states, the first layer of professional managers appears - managers or social managers. We have every reason to call the first rulers managers, since their organizational activities were aimed at social organizations, which were also economic organizations. The formation of statehood led to significant changes in management practice. And the first states were created in Mesopotamia. States were complex organizations, which required the development of management practices.
Social division of labor . The original division of labor was based on sex and age and was associated with physiological differences and the ability to perform various types of work. Men were employed in physically hard work, women and adolescents in lighter ones, besides, adolescents performed those activities that required less knowledge and experience, and women performed the duties of maintaining the hearth. caring for young children. Thus, first social division of labor can be called physiological . The second social division of labor is associated with the separation of agriculture from cattle breeding or cattle breeding from agriculture. The third social division of labor is associated with the separation of handicrafts from agriculture. The fourth division of labor is the separation of trade. This social division of labor is no longer connected with direct production, but with movement around it.
In Egypt and Sumer, by the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. crops easily gave, apparently, tenfold, twentyfold and more harvests. And this means that the labor of each person began to produce much more than was necessary for his own subsistence. In addition to the workers, the community was able to feed not only the disabled, not only to create a reliable food reserve, but also to free part of its able-bodied people from agricultural labor. Who at the first opportunity society freed from participation in direct production activities, that is, from working with tools, and during combat operations from direct participation in a fight with the enemy? For the best and greatest development of the productive forces and the cultural and ideological growth of society, it is necessary to have persons freed from productive labor. This does not mean that society consciously frees the best organizers, the most profound thinkers, the most remarkable artists from productive labor - far from it; the surplus product, freeing from productive labor, is seized not by those who are able to use it in the most rational way, but by those who could. Those in whose hands the fist, armed or ideological power take on organizational tasks as well. Most of them exploit the labor of others without benefit to society; but a certain percentage of those who have come forward are people who can really contribute to society in its technical and cultural progress
Managerial view on the problem of social division of labor and surplus product. From the material cited so far it follows that the first people whom society liberated from direct productive labor chiefs who, as commanders in war and as representatives of the community in front of the unknown forces of the world, personified as gods, as well as priests, who represented the community in front of the same gods, with their magical actions provided the patronage of the spirits of nature to the most important matters, and besides, they were the organizers of irrigation, that is, the very basis of material well-being. Thus, the first most important species activities freed from productive labor were organizers, managers, social managers, who in those distant times were called priests and leaders, then - kings and pharaohs, and, finally, today - presidents of states, speakers of the chambers of parliaments, presidents of campaigns and managers.

Changing the scale and complexity of management in the state(on the example of Mesopotamia).
The Mesopotamian civilization is of exceptional interest for researchers, as it allows them to see the mechanism of the formation of professional management.
The economic rise of Sumer in the III millennium BC. e. was due to the development of agriculture based on irrigation and the wider use of metal than before. By the end of the period, an extensive irrigation network is being created throughout the entire southern part of the country. This period is characterized by a high level of crafts. In the first place is metallurgical production. Sumerian craftsmen mastered the methods of casting, riveting, soldering. Various tools and weapons were made from copper, they also learned how to get bronze. There is a separation of trade from crafts. Special merchants stand out from the communities, who are engaged in the exchange of goods and products. Trade is developing with Syria, Transcaucasia, Iran, the islands and the coast of the Persian Gulf. Crafts and trade are concentrated in urban centers, the area of ​​cities is growing, and the number of their inhabitants is increasing.
The economy of Lower Mesopotamia (future Sumer) was divided into two sectors. One included large-family communal farms. In the other - large farms owned by temples and the top officials of the nascent state; these farms during the first centuries of written history gradually left the jurisdiction of communal self-government bodies.
Temple farms were created on lands that were originally allocated, presumably, to serve the cult of the gods, and not the priests personally. The organization of reclamation and irrigation works was entrusted to the priests. This is logical: after all, the task of the priests was to ensure the well-being of the community through cult actions and propitiation of the deities. But at the then level of development of the world outlook or attitude, cult actions should have seemed no less expedient than technical ones, and it was natural to entrust the organization of both to the same persons, the most respected and wise in terms of the time. It is no coincidence that on the most ancient pictorial monuments of Egypt and Sumer, the leader, the priest-predecessor of the king, was often depicted performing an agricultural ritual. Temples were of particular importance for the community because the product created in their farms was originally a public insurance fund, and participation in temple sacrifices created almost the only opportunity for meat nutrition for the population. At the same time, it was easier to use advanced agricultural equipment (ploughs, etc.) on large expanses of temple lands, and here the bulk of the surplus product was created.
Around 3000-2900 BC. temple households are becoming so complex and extensive that it was necessary to record their economic activities, that is, it became necessary to perform what is today called the managerial function of control and accounting. In this regard, writing is born in the temples. The emergence of writing in Mesopotamia was caused by the needs of the management of the economy and the result of the creation of large and complex farms.
The society that developed in the III millennium BC. near the lower reaches of the Euphrates, was divided into estates. The upper class included members of free communities who participated in communal ownership of land and had the rights of communal self-government, and initially the right to elect a leader-ruler. Members of the staff of the temple or government economy belonged to the lower one, who owned land only with the condition to serve and work, or did not own it at all, but received only rations. In addition, there were slaves who, as it were, stood outside the estates, since they could, in principle, be treated like cattle. But, in essence, they also constituted a special, disenfranchised class. Such a division of society was quite clear and recognized by the ancients themselves. The class division of society reflected the attitude of people towards communities as social and economic organizations. The creation of a class structure is the result of self-organization, that is, the organization of oneself. Its entire managerial meaning lies in the almost automatic, requiring a minimum of special managerial actions to regulate relations both between estates and within them. Thus, the class division of society simplified its management.
The public sector was replenished through the purchase of communal lands, which led to greater independence of the rulers from the communities, the quantitative growth of managerial personnel and an increase in labor productivity. They noted an increasing specialization of labor, an increase in the number of employees and higher labor productivity. All this was the result of effective management, which was carried out by the most qualified managers of that time - the servants of the temples.
One of the attempts known to us to introduce changes in the system of national economic management is the reign of Gudea in the second half of the 22nd century. BC. in Lagash. The whole country was divided into districts, which may or may not coincide with the former nomes. Formerly, they were headed by the Ensi, but now they were simply officials who, at the arbitrariness of the tsarist administration, were transferred from place to place. Only in some places in the border regions were the traditional authorities preserved.
He centralized not only state agriculture, but also cattle breeding. Cattle were grown mainly for sacrifices to the gods, and partly for leather and cheese production. The supply of temples with sacrifices was distributed by districts: each district in turn had to provide temples for a certain period, which was a kind of tax. The organization of a single royal economy throughout the country required huge amount administrative staff: overseers, scribes, detachment chiefs, workshop chiefs, managers, as well as many skilled artisans.
If we analyze Gudea's reforms from the standpoint of the theory of managing the national economy as an organization, as well as from the standpoint of the organization of society, we can note a number of findings and innovations that are of interest not only purely theoretical, but also practical. First of all, we note that in its activities the priority of the common goal over the goals of the elements that make up the economy and society is clearly traced. This is evident from
- the organization of central craft workshops, which provided both state structures, churches and the workers themselves with their products;
- changes in the traditional administrative structure and the alternate supply of sacrificial animals for the central temples;
- involvement of community members and workers of the royal economy in the state economy, if necessary.
And, finally, one more circumstance should be noted: the bureaucratic power was also extended to the community members. This means that Gudea practically completed the process of creating the state, as he subdued the power of all the indigenous inhabitants of his state association
An interesting way out of the crisis was demonstrated by the Mesopotamian civilization in the Old Babylonian period of history (20-17th centuries BC), when, as a result of long wars, the foundation of the Mesopotamian civilization - the irrigation system - fell into decay. All this had a painful effect on both state and private farms, but the latter, being primitively organized, were more easily revived.
Because of this, the state has provided an opportunity to restore the economy to enterprising entrepreneurs who are ready to invest their energy in small farms and enterprises. A significant part of state lands, craft workshops trade enterprises passed under the control of private individuals; even the distribution of priestly offices has become a function state power in the subject of trade, private agreements and wills. Many types of taxes were also likely to be farmed out to private individuals. All these measures had a multifaceted impact on the processes and mechanism of the national economy. The turbulent economic life, increased security in a single centralized state attracted many migrants to it from the nearest surrounding world, which ensured an influx of creative energy, material resources and cheap labor. And as a result, in the period under review, there is an expansion of sown areas (development of fallow and virgin lands), the flourishing of such an intensive branch of the economy as horticulture (cultivation of date palm), large yields of cereals (barley) and oilseeds (sesame) crops.
To a large extent, this was achieved by expanding the irrigation network throughout the country. Special officials were obliged to strictly monitor the condition of large and small canals. The Babylonian king considered his important act to be the construction of a grand canal called the Hammurabi River, which was said to be the wealth of the people, bringing an abundance of water to Sumer and Akkad. Cattle breeding also developed on a large scale, there were herds of large and small cattle, donkeys, for the pasture of which shepherds were hired. Often cattle were hired out to work in the field, threshing floor, and transport heavy loads. The craft is represented by a variety of professions. For the payment of artisans, a fixed fee was established, as well as strict responsibility for the work done.
In ancient Mesopotamia, along with the great organizations (the palace and the temple), there were also professional associations: associations of merchants and artisans, built like guilds, as well as professional groups of soothsayers and highly qualified specialists in the exorcism of evil spirits.
A significant contribution to the development of management practice and theory was made by Egyptians . The ways of the formation of statehood and the formation of a national economy in the Nile Valley differed from those that took place in Mesopotamia. The process of curbing the river, adapting it to the needs of the people was long and, apparently, covered the entire 4th millennium BC. The mighty Nile not only watered, but also fertilized the coastal soil with its silt. But before the river became the basis of agriculture, it was mastered by a man who, through his work, streamlined the huge impulsive and therefore destructive energies of nature. Without appropriate organization, without human labor, without artificial irrigation and drainage, this vast region would remain a lowland among sand and stone.
In a society where the main goal was order, and where there was the highest centralization and total control, as well as a high degree of regulation of public life, and, accordingly, there was a huge administrative apparatus. The Egyptians developed extensive irrigation projects to complement the floods of the Nile, and their engineering skills in pyramids and canals far exceeded anything the Greeks and Romans had done before.
In the multi-level pyramid of social and economic management In Egypt, one should especially highlight the most numerous layer of professional managers - scribes, who, on behalf of the pharaoh, carefully monitored the movement of all material values, the formation and expenditure of the state budget, periodically conducted population censuses, and redistributed ordinary people by profession. Egyptian management, already at an early stage of its development, is characterized by specialization both in types of work and in certain areas, which today we call management functions. Numerous staff of various kinds of employees: scribes, overseers, accountants, keepers of documents, managers, headed by a house manager, who carried out general management of all economic life, organized and controlled the work of numerous workers. This was the beginning of the birth of modern business functions.
The chief manager on whom the fate of the entire civilization depended was the pharaoh, who received a good professional managerial education from an early age in the family. There are cases when, at the age of ten, they took upon themselves the burden of governing the country. The pharaoh delegated some of his powers to his first assistant - chati. A complex bureaucratic system was created under the Chati: to measure the level of the river, on which the entire economy depended, to predict the grain harvest and income, to allocate these incomes to various divisions of the state, to monitor all industry and trade. Some fairly successful methods (for the time) were applied here: management by forecasting, work planning, division of work between different people and departments, education of a professional administrator for coordination and control. Considerable importance was attached to the motivation of employees.
A characteristic form of labor organization in field farming in the period of the Old Kingdom was work teams. These workers were deprived of ownership of tools and means of production. They received allowances from the noble warehouses and industries. Workers were charged with the obligation to perform a certain lesson on the economy to which they were subordinate; what was produced in excess of the lesson could go to their benefit with the right to dispose of this share of the product.
Around the same period as in Egypt, the basic functions and principles of management were understood in ancient China . Along with the recognition of the need for planning, organization, command and control, the Chinese identified the principles of specialization, decentralization and multiple approaches to solving identical problems. Seeing in management one of the main tools for influencing all aspects of public life and changing it in the required direction, the Chinese created an academy, whose graduates, as a rule, became managers. Thus, they began the specialized training of social and economic managers two millennia before the advent of modern management.
Chinese civilization and its system of government is characterized by exceptional pragmatism. Chinese philosophy was born in the middle of the first millennium BC in an effort to answer the vital question of the organization of society. In discussing the problems of managing society, such philosophical schools as Legalism, Modism, Taoism, and Confucianism were born. Chinese pragmatism was also reflected in the fact that philosophers, as advisers to rulers, participated in a practical, experimental search best systems management. It is also extremely important that the ancient thinkers of China from the very beginning proposed a multiple approach to solving the problem. A wide discussion on the problems of social management, which has been going on in China for several centuries, has had a very strong influence on contemporary Chinese society, as well as on its reformation in China. different periods up until today.
At the same time, a system of ranks was introduced, which were assigned not on the basis of hereditary law, but for military merit. Later, the acquisition of ranks for money was allowed. Let's pay attention to this decision, which is related to such today's phenomenon as bribery. Shang Yang, proceeding from the recognition of the evil nature of man, found an extraordinary way to legally solve the problem and showed that a legal solution, unlike an illegal one, can be beneficial to society.
After 4 centuries, in the Han era, there were a total of 20 ranks of nobility. There are 20 ranks of civil servants in the US today.
A significant contribution to the development of the practice and theory of management was made by another eastern civilization - indian . It is characterized by the relationship between the ideological life of society and the economic life, active state regulation, control over economic life, multilateral state support for new economic entities. The Indians created the first scientific treatise and textbook known to us on the organization of the national economy, entrepreneurship and management. The Indians have enriched world practice with discoveries in working with information, shaping public opinion for effective project management, creating a staff apparatus, and irrational decision-making methods.
A distinctive feature of Indian society since the late Vedic time is a peculiar, unparalleled system of varnas in the world, which then grew into a caste system. To one degree or another, elements of caste were observed among many peoples and in different historical eras. But nowhere did the caste system acquire such a complete form and last so long.
In principle, each system strives to maintain a certain stability in the structure and mechanism of control. This allows you to save significant resources due to a certain self-organization. Innovations, on the other hand, require huge expenditures of material, human and, especially, qualified management personnel. This explains the long-term viability of the class division of society.. In this regard, the Indian civilization, the Indian management school, has created a caste system that is unique in its viability, which has not only its exceptional extension in time, but also its stability in space. If the estates allowed a certain exchange of their constituent elements, then the castes excluded such. An unprecedented case in the history of management that contradicts one of the basic laws of the development of an organization - self-organization, the degree of which is determined by the degree of openness to the outside world, to external influences. The castes, like the varnas that preceded them, were among the most closed organizations. Suffice it to recall that one cannot become a member of a caste except by birth.
State regulation of economic life took place in many states and civilizations, but it was carried out most vividly and consistently in India. The greatest contribution to the development of agriculture was made by the construction of irrigation facilities by the state and the provision of farmers with the necessary amount of water. The water tax was equal to the fifth, fourth and even the third part of the entire crop, which was collected from the irrigated plot. The state should also be given credit for the construction of walled cities, where not only priests, nobility and warriors settled, but also artisans, merchants, etc.
Along with regulation, the Indian state assisted individual citizens, not only Vaishya peasants, but also Shudras in organizing private farms. To stimulate the cultivation of wild lands, farmers were temporarily exempted from paying taxes, and also received other benefits, including the issuance of cattle, seeds and money to them. It was believed that all this should pay off in the future, when the settlers get stronger and get on their feet.
In the new settlements, land plots were granted to priests and village officials, and these plots could not be sold, mortgaged, or inherited. Even taxpaying peasants could not transfer their land to those from whom taxes were not collected. If the farmer could not cope with the processing of the plot allocated to him, the plot was transferred to another. It can be assumed that during the period under review, a significant part of the lands of the Ganges basin was included in the production. Moreover, colonization could also affect the areas adjacent to it.
Indian civilization also provides the first known management textbook, a book found at the beginning of the 20th century called Arthashastra , which means in translation the doctrine of the economy and public administration. It is a systematic presentation of the basic principles and methods of management, job descriptions of officials who organized and controlled the activities of the main industries and enterprises. Therefore, it can be called the first management textbook. Arthashastra is a large work, consisting of 15 departments, or books. Each department in turn has sections and chapters.
The first section of the monument begins with an introductory chapter, which gives a statement of the rules of the king's behavior, as well as the appointment and testing of ministers and the chief adviser, secret agents, monitoring hostile and friendly parties, as well as the king's sons, etc.
The second section deals with such issues as the settlement and organization of the area, the use of land unsuitable for cultivation, the construction of a fortress, the establishment of income by the collector of income, the maintenance of accounts in the accounting department, the drafting of decrees, the management of mines and workshops, the establishment of weights and measures, the duties of the chief tax collector, the duties of the mayor and the duties of numerous overseers.
The third department is the judiciary. In essence, this department is the state regulation of economic activity and the protection of its participants.
The fourth section - on the removal of obstacles to public order - is devoted to issues of criminal law, as well as measures to prevent natural disasters and provide assistance to victims from the state.
The fifth section is about the use of sophisticated means of the state. The author pays great attention to the main element connecting the national economy - the collection of taxes and the search for other ways to replenish the treasury of the sovereign, who is in a difficult situation, that is, in emergency circumstances.
The sixth section is devoted to the foundations of the state, which are the sovereign, minister, countryside, fortified cities, treasury, army and allies. The author gives ideal, desirable states and qualities of some elements.
The seventh department and most of the rest are devoted mainly to foreign policy issues, peaceful and military methods of its implementation, internal and external security problems, and secret methods of dealing with opponents.
Topic 4. Management ideas and practice in European civilization (pre-industrial period)
GREECE . From the very beginning of its development, European civilization has shown a number of distinctive features in the management of the economic and social life of society. The ancient period of European culture is interesting not only as our past, but also as the formation of many of the principles, methods and traditions that exist today in the field of management.
In ancient Greece, two and a half thousand years ago, the formation of a modern European civilization with a market economy, a high culture of democratic governance and the free development of the individual begins. The main economic element of Greek society was the small proprietor.
Ancient Greece was characterized by decentralization of society and economy. It manifested itself, first of all, in the many Greek states-polises themselves, of which there were more than 200 on a small peninsula and adjacent islands.
The Greek policies differed from each other in a number of factors, the greatest extremes of which were the democratic and oligarchic forms of organization, which received a classical reflection, respectively, in Athens and Sparta. In both polises there is a fairly large number of non-civilian population, who were in varying degrees of dependence on the polis civil collective, but in each of them their own systems of exploitation of slaves were established.
In the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. Athens became a democratic state. In 621 BC Athens was the first to record existing laws. The codification can be seen as a serious concession of the Eupatrides to the demos, who suffered greatly from the arbitrariness of the archons, who judged according to unwritten customary law. A further change in the mechanism of governance of Athenian society is associated with the name of Solon, whom ancient historiography portrays as an ideal legislator who stood above classes and estates and had the goal of reconciling them.
Based on the popular assembly, Solon carried out a series of economic and political reforms. The most important economic reform was the abolition of debts, which freed a mass of debtor slaves and eased the plight of the peasantry. It was forbidden to guarantee a debt by the person of the debtor and sell him into slavery for debts. Further, Solon introduced a law on the freedom of wills, which approved private property and allowed the division of ancestral possessions, while earlier the land was inherited by the genus and was not subject to alienation. As a result of Solon's reforms, a layer of small and medium-sized free landowners appears in Attica - an integral part of any city-state of antiquity, its social basis.
Among the economic measures carried out by Solon, one should note a law that prohibited the export of bread from Attica and encouraged the export of olive oil. In the language of today, this means the intensification of economic management, a more rational use of resources. Encouraging the cultivation of intensive crops - olives, grapes, etc. - Solon issued laws regulating the planting of trees, irrigation, rules on the joint use of wells that previously belonged to individual clans or families, etc. The cultivation of intensive crops was available not only to large landowners, but also to the middle strata of the demos, in whose interests these laws were carried out. The activities of Solon contributed to the transformation of Attica from a country of arable farming into a country in whose economy the main place was occupied by highly intensive horticultural crops, which produced significant marketable products.
In order to encourage and develop trade and handicraft production, Solon introduced a law according to which a son could refuse to help his aged father if he did not teach him the craft. Under Solon in Athens, the units of measures and weights were unified.
Thus, in contrast to the East, the small private sector was the main sector here. The economic independence of a small family, a separate full-fledged individual, that is, the democratization of economic life and the presence of a wide layer of citizens - owners (in accordance with the current terminology - the middle class) should inevitably result in the democratization of the entire public system. The administration of the policy was formed exclusively through elections with the participation of all citizens.
To create a real opportunity to participate in public institutions and overcome indifference to public affairs, Pericles introduced a fee for the administration of jury duty in courts, in meetings. In 451, Pericles renewed the old law, which limited the right of citizenship to the condition of obligatory descent from both parents of Athenian citizens. The law said that only people descended from both Athenians could be Athenians. The law caused a lot of misunderstandings and lawsuits and all kinds of deceptions and frauds. About 5,000 people caught cheating were sold into slavery. Full-fledged citizens turned out to be only a little more than 14 thousand. (Aristotle mentions the figure of 20 thousand, determining the number of Athenian citizen-officials who were supported largely thanks to the contributions of members of the maritime union.)
Athenian democracy has always been a minority democracy. Pericles is also credited with the introduction of theatrical money, issued to citizens for the purchase of a stamp or a ticket for theatrical performances, which was a natural continuation and development of payments and for the performance of public duties, especially for military service, established during the Greco-Persian wars. A wealthy part of the citizens carried all sorts of public duties in the form of equipping military courts, arranging spectacles, paying choirs and exercising government posts associated with large expenses. If we compare the number of citizens with the number of positions in Athens, we can assume that almost all city citizens and a significant part of rural residents participated in the direct administration of the state. Another comparison is also interesting: 14 thousand citizens and 230 thousand inhabitants of Athens.
The authorities of the Greek city-states, as a rule, intervened in local economic life, especially taking care of the uninterrupted supply of the market with bread. There was a fight against speculation. The order and trade in the markets in Athens were observed by specially elected overseers, foreign trade- Trustees of the trading port elected for this purpose.
For Attica and Athens, the period of the fiftieth anniversary was characterized by the coexistence of slave and free labor in the craft. The workshops of artisans who worked personally or with the help of one or two slaves were small enterprises that existed in the presence of large and even very large workshops - a kind of slave manufactories of antiquity.
But on the whole, under Pericles, free labor was maintained by purely artificial measures and the norm for the use of slave labor was established: the number of slaves working on large public buildings was reduced to about a quarter of the total number of workers.
Greek history helps to understand many of the theoretical provisions and practice of managing interstate economic relations. According to the theory of development of the national economy, at a certain stage of its development it reaches an optimal state. In the language of management, the optimal state is the state of the greatest efficiency of the national economy. The optimal state is the state of balance and stability (relative). The national economy in its optimal state has exceptionally powerful energy, that is, the ability to transform the external environment, which for it is the whole life of this state and other national economies surrounding it. This transformative action is manifested through expansion. The latter can appear in various forms.
The Greek transformative power in one case was realized as a Greek peaceful colonization. Among its causes, one should note the emergence of relative overpopulation due to the insufficient development of productive forces, the desire of merchants to gain a foothold on the routes to foreign countries and settle there, as well as political struggle in the metropolises, often accompanied by wild terror. Greek colonization spread to various territories of the Mediterranean and Black Sea region.
The colonies quickly became an independent policy. Although the colonies and mother countries usually did not form unions and did not have common citizenship, the inhabitants of the metropolis who arrived in the colony became its citizens, and the colonists who returned to the old home easily restored their citizenship. Various regions, districts and cities of Hellas took part in the colonization: both more backward and more developed. In accordance with this, either the agrarian or the trade and handicraft aspect prevailed in the colonial expansion. The relationship between the Greek colonists and the local barbarian population developed differently. But they have always influenced each other. Hellenic influence undoubtedly accelerated the economic, social and cultural development of the barbarians.
The impact of colonization on the metropolis is also significant. From the peripheral regions go to Greece gold, silver, tin, foodstuffs (fish, bread), slaves. The value of the latter type of goods is growing more and more. This accelerated the social processes that took place in the cities of the Balkan, island, Asia Minor Greece, and influenced the political struggle.
Another important period of influence on the outside world, including the mass emigration of Greeks, mass colonization, is the creation of a world power by Alexander the Great. Today, Hellenism is viewed by many historians as a Greek gift to a temporarily annexed world. On the ruins of the power of Alexander the Great, states arose that are commonly called Hellenistic states. In the history of the Mediterranean peoples, the Hellenistic states represent a progressive stage of social development. In relation to the political system, the Hellenistic societies represent a combination of the features of the classical policy with the ancient Eastern monarchy. Management in the Hellenistic kingdoms, in comparison with the policy, is built on the principles of greater centralism.
Politicians, philosophers and other ideologists of Greek society were looking for a way out of the social and political impasse in which the Greek slave-owning classical policies found themselves. Various ways were proposed for this: Plato and Aristotle were engaged in the theoretical development of the best social and state structure, but no matter how different their constructions were, they could not go beyond the concept of the state as a policy.
Socrates discovered that managerial ability can be transferred from public to private affairs. In his early study on the universalization of management, Socrates observed that management in private affairs differs from public affairs only in magnitude; both cases deal with the management of people, and if one could not manage his private affairs, he certainly cannot manage the public affairs. However, the Greeks may have deviated too much from Socrates' rules of universality. Military and municipal leaders changed regularly, creating chaos in government affairs and creating problems during times of threat from the better organized, more professional armies of Sparta and Macedonia.
In his work Politics, Aristotle wrote. He who has never learned to obey cannot lead. In his discussion of the management of the household, he, like Socrates, spoke of the similarity between the art of government and the household. Both are connected with the management of property, slaves and free citizens with only one difference in the size of the total transactions.
However, Greek economic philosophy was largely anti-business, and trade and commerce were considered beneath the dignity of the Greek man. Works, being ignoble for the Greek aristocrat and philosopher, must be performed by slaves and disrespectful citizens. Workers and merchants were deprived of citizenship in the Greek democracy, due to low respect for workers and trade professions. But unlike the Jewish tradition, the Greeks were actively engaged in financial and credit activities. Attica and Athens became the most important trade and craft center not only in Balkan Greece, but throughout the ancient Greek world. The most common financial and usurious operation in the coastal cities of Greece were maritime loans, i.e. return of money secured by goods or at high (maritime) interest to shipowners (18% per annum in those days was not considered too high a norm). This main operation was joined by a host of various small deals and shenanigans. The Greeks were not very law-abiding citizens: deceit, forgery, slander and a mass of all kinds of slander and denunciations form the content of endless small and large judicial litigations, which Greek literature of the 4th century is so rich in. From the speeches of the speakers it is clear that in addition to giving money at sea interest, they also speculated on the exchange rate, which, with the multitude of coins in circulation, was a very profitable occupation. The development of monetary transactions led to the expansion of the activities of change shops (meals), which turned into a kind of banking offices.
Despite the anti-trade philosophy, the Greek era illustrates the first sprouts of democracy, the advent of decentralized government, the first attempts to consolidate the freedom of the individual, the beginning scientific method problem solving; and an early, albeit superficial, view that managing different organizations requires the same managerial skills.
ROME . The Romans developed a quasi-factory system to produce armaments for the legions, pottery for the world market, and later textiles that were sold for export. The famous Roman road system was built to speed up the movement of troops to conquer the colonies. The Romans inherited the Greeks' disregard for trade and introduced commercialism to Greek and Eastern freed slaves. Growing foreign trade required commercial standardization, so the state developed a system of measures, weights, and money. The first prototype of a corporate organization appeared in the form of joint stock companies that sold shares in order to fulfill government contracts, to support the war effort. Highly specialized work force, with a few exceptions, prevailed in small shops as independent artisans selling products for the market and not for the individual buyer. Free workers formed guilds (colleges), but they existed for social purposes and shared profits, such as paying funeral expenses, not setting levels. wages, hours and working conditions. The state regulated every aspect of Roman economic life: levying tariffs on trade, imposing fines on monopolists, regulating guilds, and using their income to fight numerous wars. Large organizations could not exist, because the state prohibited joint stock companies for any purpose other than to fulfill government contracts.
The Romans were ingenious in organizing the system, the military autocracy held the empire in an iron fist. Behind the authoritarian organizational structure were two fundamental concepts - discipline and functionality. The latter carried out the division of work between various military and government agencies, the former formed a strict framework and hierarchy of power to ensure the performance of functions.
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