Major Inventions of the Industrial Revolution. Industrial Revolution in England (18th century)

Salvador Dali— the myth and reality of art of the XX century. Of course, not since childhood, but already during his lifetime, his name was surrounded by a halo of world fame. No one but Pablo Picasso could match his fame. Despite the fact that we know quite a few well-reasoned, albeit sometimes opposite, versions of the phenomenon of this outstanding artist, they cannot finally convince us of the correctness of individual points of view of this or that author or persuade one of them to the side. Apparently, this is inevitable. After all, just as in nature there are inexplicable phenomena, so in art much is completely incomprehensible.

Trying to get closer to understanding creativity Dali, let's turn to his own thoughts and judgments: “... when the Renaissance wanted to imitate Immortal Greece, this turned out to be Raphael. Ingres wanted to imitate Raphael, from this came Ingres. Cezanne wanted to imitate Poussin - Cezanne turned out. Dali wanted to imitate Meissonier, and this resulted in Dali. Nothing comes of those who do not want to imitate anything. And I want to know about it. After pop art and op art, art pompier will appear, but such art will be multiplied by everything that is of value, and by all, even the most insane, experiences of this grandiose tragedy called contemporary art(art modern)".

Dali never ceases to amaze the audience's imagination with the paradoxical nature of the figurative worldview, asserting its monopoly on ingenious unsurpassedness. With inexhaustible fantasy, extravagance of nature, seeming absurdity, unmotivated actions, hypertrophied ambition, he created the ground for the mythologization of his own person. Dali possessed a truly universal gift and managed to brilliantly realize his talent in various areas creativity - in fine arts, cinema, literature ... Art criticism and art criticism, partly contrary to Dali's idea of their own exclusivity, simplifying their task, determined his leading place within the conditional boundaries of one artistic direction - surrealism. But, apparently, the time will come when this will no longer be enough and the existing theoretical model will be replaced by a more in-depth and complex attitude towards the legacy of the great master. Perhaps only the future is given to feel a certain closeness of Dali's art to the spiritual quest of Russian culture, the genius of N. Gogol, F. Dostoevsky, M. Bulgakov, their universal phantasmagoria. The experience of such parallels, in our opinion, would be fruitful, would allow us to get out of the narrowed circle of established views, but today we are not sufficiently prepared for this. Contrary to such predictions, let us return to the traditional model of the history of surrealism and its role in its development today. Dali.

Task 15. Using the text of § 22 of the textbook, make a table "The most important inventions during the industrial revolution."

Task 16. Choose the correct answer.

For the industrial revolution to take place in England, the following conditions were required:
a) free people deprived of property; b) the presence of free money in the hands of rich people; c) the existence of a parliament; d) two-party political system; e) the market for goods.

Task 17. Explain concepts.

Agricultural revolution - a process characterized by the concentration of land in the hands of large owners, the use of hired labor and the disappearance of the peasantry and the growth of agricultural productivity.
industrial revolution - the transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufactory to factory.
Luddism - spontaneous movement of machine destroyers at the beginning of the 19th century. in England.

Task 18. What do you think prompted a Vermont farmer to write in the mid-eighteenth century? to their relatives in England:

“I settled on this God-chosen and free land two and a half years ago and since then I have never paid for the pleasure of living in this world. Yes, and my hat during this time has never broken for a bow before any gentleman ”?
Write your answer.

The English colonies in North America were originally formed as a community of equal free people, deprived of class privileges and religious persecution. In addition, there was a lot of free land and there was no need to buy or rent it, as in native England.

Task 19. Fill the gaps.

Benjamin Franklin is famous as a politician, American philosopher, scientist, economist.
From the age of seventeen he began an independent life "a man who owes everything to himself."
Franklin tried many professions and then went to England and worked there. printer. Returning to America, he settled in Philadelphia, where he opened a stationery shop that also sold books. Then Franklin organizes the first public library , founds Academy, which laid the foundation University of Pennsylvania and, finally, publishes a newspaper. Then he begins to seriously engage in politics. With his active participation, the American colonies separated from England. Franklin was the American ambassador to France. His last fine act was the signing of a petition to abolish slavery.

Task 20. Choose the correct answer.

The formation of the North American nation was facilitated by:
a) the formation of a single internal market; b) common historical destiny; c) common language (English); d) loyalty to the English parliament; e) one religion; f) the desire to strengthen the monarchical form of government.
The detachment of American colonists won the first victory over the English troops in 1775 near the city:
a) Boston b) New York; c) Philadelphia; d) Concord; e) Lexington.

Task 21. Use the "+" or "-" sign to indicate whether you agree with these statements.

The causes of the War of Independence of the British colonies in North America were:
1) the prohibition of the English king and parliament to conduct maritime trade on ships belonging to the colonists;
2) the desire of the English king to strengthen the influence of the Catholic Church in the colonies;
3) the prohibition of the English Parliament to establish manufactories producing iron products in the colonies;
4) the English parliament's obstruction of emigration to North America;
5) a royal decree forbidding colonists to move to the West, beyond the Allegheny Mountains;
6) the ban of the English parliament on the publication by the inhabitants of the colonies of their newspapers and magazines;
7) the ban of the English Parliament on the production of fabrics in the colonies;
8) the introduction of stamp duty by the mother country;
9) the lack of representation in the British Parliament among the inhabitants of the colonies;
10) the desire of the inhabitants of the colonies for freedom and equality.

Many world-changing inventions emerged during the Industrial Revolution. The camera was not one of them. In fact, the forerunner of the camera, known as the camera obscura, dates back to the late 1500s.

However, saving camera shots was a problem for a long time, especially if you didn't have time to draw them. Then came Nicephore Niepce. In the 1820s, a Frenchman came up with the idea of overlaying coated paper filled with light-sensitive chemicals onto an image projected by a camera obscura. Eight hours later, the world's first photograph appeared.

Realizing that eight hours was too long to pose in family portrait mode, Niepce joined forces with Louis Daguerre to improve his design, and it was Daguerre who continued Niepce's work after his death in 1833. The so-called daggerotype first aroused enthusiasm in the French Parliament, and then throughout the world. However, although the daguerreotype could produce very detailed images, they could not be replicated.

Daguerre's contemporary, William Henry Fox Talbot, also worked to improve photographic images in the 1830s and made the first negative through which light could shine on photographic paper and create a positive. Similar advances began to quickly find a place, and gradually the cameras were even able to capture moving objects, and the exposure time was reduced. A photo of a horse taken in 1877 put an end to the long-standing debate about whether all four of a horse's legs are off the ground during a gallop (yes). So the next time you take out your smartphone to take a picture, think for a second about the centuries of innovation that made that picture possible.

Phonograph

Nothing can fully replicate the experience of playing live with your favorite band. Not so long ago, live performances were generally the only way to listen to music. Thomas Edison changed this forever by developing a method for transcribing telegraph messages, which led him to the idea of the phonograph. The idea is simple but beautiful: a recording needle extrudes grooves corresponding to the sound waves of music or speech into a rotating tin-plated cylinder, and another needle reproduces the original sound based on these grooves.

In contrast to Babbage and his decade-long attempts to see his designs come to fruition, Edison had his mechanic John Cruesi build the machine, and within 30 hours had a working prototype in his hands. But Edison didn't stop there. His first tin cylinders could only play music a few times, so Edison later replaced the tin with wax. By that time, the Edison phonograph was no longer the only one on the market, and over time, people began to abandon the Edison cylinders. The basic mechanism has been preserved and is used to this day. Not bad for a random invention.

steam engine

How today we are fascinated by the roar of V8 engines and high-speed jet aircraft once upon a time and steam technology was incredible. In addition, it played a gigantic role in supporting the industrial revolution. Before this era, people used horses and carriages to get around, and the practice of mining in mines was very laborious and inefficient.

James Watt, a Scottish engineer, did not develop a steam engine, but he managed to make a more efficient version of one in the 1760s by adding a separate condenser. It changed forever mining industry.

Initially, some inventors used a steam engine to pump and remove water from mines, which gave improved access to resources. As these engines gained popularity, engineers wondered how they could be improved. Watt's version of the steam engine didn't need to be cooled after every blow that came with mining at the time.

Others wondered: what if, instead of transporting raw materials, goods and people on a horse, use a steam-powered car? These thoughts inspired inventors to explore the potential of steam engines outside of the mining world. Watt's modification of the steam engine led to other developments in the Industrial Revolution, including the first steam locomotives and steam-powered ships.

The following invention is perhaps less well known, but is of definite importance.

Conservation

Open the kitchen cabinet and you will definitely find at least one useful invention of the industrial revolution. The same period that gave us the steam engine changed the way we store food.

After the spread of Great Britain to other parts of the world, inventions began to fuel the Industrial Revolution at a constant rate. For example, such a case occurred with a French chef and innovator named Nicolas Appert. Looking for ways to preserve food without losing flavor or freshness, Apper regularly experimented with containerized food storage. In the end, he came to the conclusion that the storage of food, coupled with drying or salt, does not lead to an improvement in palatability, but quite the opposite.

Upper thought that storing food in containers would be especially helpful for seafarers suffering from malnutrition at sea. The Frenchman worked on a boiling technique that involved placing food in a jar, sealing it, and then boiling it in water to create a vacuum seal. Apper achieved his goal by developing a special canning autoclave in the early 1800s. The basic concept has survived to this day.

Before the advent of smartphones and laptops, people still used the industrial revolution technology of the telegraph, albeit to a much lesser degree than before.

Through the electrical system of networks, the telegraph could transmit messages from one place to another over long distances. The recipient of the message had to interpret the markings produced by the machine in Morse code.

The first message was sent in 1844 by Samuel Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, and it accurately conveys his excitement. He transmitted "What is the Lord doing?" with the help of his new system, hinting that he discovered something large. And so it was. The Morse telegraph allowed people to communicate almost instantly over long distances.

Information transmitted via telegraph lines also greatly contributed to the development of the media and allowed governments to exchange information more quickly. The development of the telegraph even spawned the first news service, the Associated Press. After all, Morse's invention connected America to Europe - and it was very important at that time.

Spinning wheel "Jenny"

Whether it's socks or any of the fashionable items of clothing, it was the advances in the textile industry during the industrial revolution that made these things possible for the masses.

The Jenny spinning wheel, or Hargreaves spinning machine, contributed greatly to the development of this process. After the raw materials - cotton or wool - are collected, they need to be made into yarn, and often this work is very painstaking for people.

James Hargreaves solved this issue. Taking on a challenge from Britain's Royal Society of Arts, Hargreaves designed a device that far exceeded the competition's requirement to weave at least six yarns at a time. Hargreaves built a machine that gave out eight streams simultaneously, which dramatically increased the efficiency of this activity.

The device consisted of a spinning wheel that controlled the flow of material. At one end of the device was a rotating material, and at the other the threads were collected into yarn from under the hand wheel.

Roads and mines

Creating the infrastructure to support the Industrial Revolution was not easy. The demand for metals, including iron, spurred the industry to come up with more effective methods extraction and transportation of raw materials.

For several decades, iron companies have been supplying large quantities of iron to factories and manufacturing companies. To obtain cheap metal, mining companies supplied more cast iron than wrought iron. In addition, people began to use metallurgy or simply explore physical properties materials in industrial environment.

The massive mining of iron allowed other inventions of the Industrial Revolution to be mechanized. Without the metallurgical industry, they would not have developed railways, steam locomotives, there could be a stagnation in the development of transport and other industries.

Industrialization has fundamentally changed the world. New energy sources enabled mechanization; communications and vehicles were developed.

Reasons for industrialization

Many factors contributed to the accelerated development of industrialization in Europe in the 19th century. As a result of the development of large empires, especially the British Empire, powerful trading opportunities appeared in Europe. Growing export markets contributed to an increase in labor productivity, and modern factories gradually began to be built. The rapid expansion of the empire in the 18th century contributed to the acceleration of industrial development in Great Britain. By the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, states such as Belgium and Germany also began to create industrial production. Industrialization captured all new areas, from England to Northern and Western Europe, later she crossed the Atlantic and reached the east coast of the United States.

This process was facilitated by the intensive development of the natural sciences and technology. Probably one of the most important inventions of the time was the use of steam to power machines in factories. Coal was needed to generate steam, and some of Europe's strongest industrial regions were located near vast coal deposits. Great Britain and benefited from coal mines in South Wales, Midland and Northern England. In Germany, the coal industry was developed primarily with its deep coal seams extending widely to the north.

Besides, industrial regions benefited from being close to important transportation and trade routes such as rivers, canals or the sea. For example, in France, the Moselle and Marne rivers were ideal for transporting coal, and Marseille, located in Provence, opened access to the Mediterranean Sea.

The first photograph of the site (circa 1850) where the building was later built Big City Salt Lake City. Left: An 1883 engraving shows a worker (and foreman) in an English cotton mill.

The advantage of Great Britain was that on a relatively narrow island, all the cities were located close to the sea. In addition, a network of waterways, consisting of rivers and canals, provided an easy way to transport sfya and finished products. The rivers of northern Germany and Belgium were of equal importance. Along with convenient geographic location, an important role was played by the provision labor force used in factories.

As a result of years of privatization of common land, many residents of rural areas of the UK have been forced to go to the cities in search of work. On the European continent, the flight from the villages to the big cities began a little later. Major port cities such as Liverpool, Marseille, Hamburg and Rotterdam quickly developed into major industrial centers.

Impact of industrialization

The emergence of industrial society completely changed the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, countries with a high degree of industrialization were not only economically but also politically strong states. The dominant nations of Germany, France, Great Britain, Japan and the United States relied on the developed economies of their countries. Industrialization, combined with the capitalist mode of the economy, has created an extremely effective and productive tool for supporting and financing the state. In the course of the 20th century, market-oriented capitalist democracies became richest countries peace.

In the 19th century, the direct impact of the industrial revolution was not always positive. Due to the urbanization of cities and the influx of the poor, many felt the deterioration of living conditions. There was hunger and disease. The distance between factory owners (the capitalists) who wanted to keep costs as low as possible to gain profit and the underpaid and oppressed workers (the proletariat) created class conflicts. Poor living conditions throughout 19th-century Europe influenced philosophers such as Karl Marx, who published The Communist Manifesto in 1848. Industrialization caused not only social, but also political changes. The emergence of communism as an opposition to capitalism led to fundamental changes in some countries. Especially significant was the coup in Russia - the Great October Revolution.

English physicist Michael Faraday, who discovered electromagnetism and thereby laid the foundations for the dynamo and electric generator.

Steam engine

Steam engines were a major contributor to industrialization, as they provided power to drive pumps, locomotives, and steamboats.

The pressurized steam generated in the machine enters the turbine or piston and sets them in motion. This movement is transferred to the wheels of the car. Although the date of this invention is considered to be 1698, many improvements were required before the steamboat was first equipped with a steam engine in 1802. We owe the improvement of the steam engine to the Scot James Watt. Watt was born in 1732 and devoted his whole life to improving the steam engine, as a result of which, during the era of the industrial revolution, it began to be used as a source of energy and drive. Watt invented a separate chamber for steam condensation and thereby increased the efficiency of the machine. The barometer, centrifugal regulator and flywheel are also his inventions. One of Watt's steam engines was installed on the first experimental steamship, the Claremont, built in 1807 on the Hudson.

Railway

The creation of railways with steam locomotives was a significant contribution to industrialization. Simple Views The railway functioned in Great Britain in the 19th century. On a primitive track made of stone and iron, horses dragged carts to quarries and mines. The steam engine changed the situation radically. Miner Richard Trevithick from Cornwall in 1804 docked a steam engine and a trolley with a tipping body. Inspired by this result, George Stephenson created the first working steam locomotive that could pull wagons. Opened in 1830 between London and Liverpool, the first railway made a splash in the construction of railways. Finally, the British state intervened and in 1850 standardized the gauge, which by that time had up to ten gauges. Thus, Britain became the first country to have at its disposal a properly functioning national railway network. Now, railways were being built everywhere in Europe, which connected distant areas and contributed to the integration of the economy.

Textile industry

Factories equipped with machines became the production centers of national industry. In parallel with the increasing mechanization of production processes and the rapid growth of labor productivity, gigantic factories arose everywhere in Europe, equipped with machines that were served by countless workers. Revolutionary advances in development textile production were achieved by using the first water-powered spinning machine, invented by Arkwright in 1769, and by the invention of the steam-powered power loom by Cartwright in 1792. In America, Eli Whitney developed a gin in 1793 to automatically separate the cotton fiber from the seed. The resulting increase in the production of raw cotton caused prices to fall and demand to rise. In the middle of the 19th century, America produced three-quarters of the world's cotton fabrics. A large number of of this commodity came from the southern states and on to England and New England for further processing. The factories produced not only cheap clothes, but also dishes, glassware, watches - everything that was in demand.

Telegraph

A prosperous economy depended on communications, and postal systems emerged throughout Europe in the 19th century. Around 1875, the Universal Postal Union was organized to carry out postal correspondence with other countries. However, only with the creation of the telegraph did it become possible to carry out direct and instantaneous communication with remote objects. In 1837, an electric telegraph was first tested in London, and in 1838, Samuel Morse patented the telegraph he invented in America.

After the successful laying of the first submarine cable between North America and Europe in 1866, transatlantic telephone communications became possible.

Electricity

In 1831, Michael Faraday demonstrated the effect of the transformation electrical energy into mechanical. The electromagnetism discovered by him served as the basis for the development of a dynamo and an electric generator. In 1837, he created a dynamo with increased electrical power, and the technique, which at first was almost inaccessible and very expensive, gradually gained popularity. Until the beginning of the 20th century, people learned to generate relatively cheap electricity only from the energy of the movement of water. In the mountainous regions of Italy, where there was no coal, most factories were powered by electricity generated by generators powered by the movement of water. In Florence, in 1890, the first electric trams were put into operation. In the 1930s, almost all of Europe was electrified, and states such as Russia, which in the 19th century experienced a slower than accelerated pace of industrialization, began to develop rapidly.

The factory shop of one of the Krupp steel factories in Essen, the largest weapons forges of the German Empire.

Weapon

Firearms began to be created in the 16th century, and their role gradually increased. Consequence technological innovation XIX century was a rapid change in military weapons. The invention of the machine gun led to subsequent changes in the production of weapons. In 1862, the Gatling gun was invented, which quickly fired balls and was the first automatic reloading firearm. For the first time, such a weapon was used in civil war in America and later began to be used in the US Navy. The mitrailleuses made in France consisted of 37 bundled gun barrels. In 1883, the Maxim machine gun, invented by an American, was the first to use recoil energy after a shot to reload cartridges, which made it possible to fire a whole series of shots. One of the greatest inventors of weapons is Alfred Krupp from Essen, who turned a small family business into the largest and most successful manufacturing enterprise Europe. When Krupp took over the firm, it had five employees. After his death in 1887, 20 thousand people were already employed in production - proof of the huge need for weapons in the 19th century.

In the 1760s-1790s in England (UK) has begun industrial revolution.

Causes of the industrial revolution

Market competition spurred craftsmen to invent new mechanisms that would reduce the cost of goods. This was especially important in the textile industry. The fashion for Indian cotton fabrics hurt the incomes of English weavers. Indian artisans have been making fabrics from cotton for many centuries, so they were stronger and softer than European ones, their color did not fade after washing. And at the same time, fabrics came to England at a price lower than English. The only way to compete with Indian artisans was to make production cheaper.

Beginning of the industrial revolution

"Jenny's Spinning Wheel"

The loom was improved in 1733. Cloth worker Kay invented for him a mechanical shuttle that no longer needed to be thrown over the threads by hand. But the weavers were directly dependent on those who spun the threads, and here inefficient manual labor remained, and therefore there was not enough yarn for new machines.

Only in 1765 master James Hargreaves designed a spinning machine, which he named after his daughter "Jenny's spinning wheel". The person working on it only needed to move the pedals and levers, and the mechanisms of the machine themselves pulled out and spun several threads at once, and many times faster than hand spinning.

Richard Arkwright

James Watt

Spinning machine by Richard Arkwright

At the same time, Master Hayes built water spinning wheel, consisting of rollers driven by a water wheel. It's curious that patent for this invention (that is, a document confirming authorship and giving the right to profit from its use) was received not by the creator of the machine himself, but by a clever businessman, a rural hairdresser Richard Arkwright engaged in textile production.

The emergence of factories

Entrepreneurial owners replaced the manual labor of several workers in their manufactories with one "Jenny's spinning wheel" or a water spinning wheel. Workers no longer worked on the product itself (fabric), but serviced the machines that created this product. As a result, fabrics began to be made or, as they said in England, "fabricated" very quickly. New enterprises, where manual labor was replaced by machine, began to be called factories. So in England began the industrial revolution - the transition from manual labor to machine and from manufactory to the factory.

Technical progress

The development of invention in England during the industrial revolution was called technical progress . It was a process based on the rapid improvement and complication of technology.

Watt's steam engine

For a long time, the industrial revolution was held back by the fact that people or water wheels had to set the machines in motion. Factories and manufactories had to be built only next to fast-ry rivers. Therefore, many inventors tried to find a new source of energy. Since antiquity, it has been known that water vapor generated by boiling water, if directed through a cylinder pipe, is able to set mechanisms in motion. In the 18th century, a steam engine was assembled by various mechanics in different countries. However, all their creations required a lot of fuel, and the power of their action was very weak, a lot of energy was wasted. The leadership of the university in Glasgow instructed the mechanics to finalize one of these engines James Watt.The master has been working on improving the machine for many years. Finally in 1784 he introduced people to the universal steam engine - Watt's steam engine. The water in it boiled in a closed boiler, steam entered the cylinder and pushed the piston. Without modern lathe Watt managed to fit the size of the piston to the size of the chi-linder so precisely that even a small coin could not be inserted between them. Now the power of steam was not wasted. The piston, through a special transmission mechanism, could set in motion the parts of the "Jenny's spinning wheel", inflate bellows or rotate wheels in any part of England.

Technological progress in modern times

Pudding ovens

The next problem to be solved was that the machines and mechanisms of Hargreaves, Arkwright, Watt, made mainly of wood, quickly wore out at high speed. Iron in England was very expensive, and it was mainly purchased from Sweden, Russia and other countries. There were plenty of their own ores, but for their smelting they needed charcoal, and most of the forests in England have already been cut down. In the bowels of England, a lot of hard coal, but medieval blast furnaces could not work on it. In 1783, after long experiments, two masters at once, independently of each other, built new ones - puddling (mixing) furnaces, in which metal smelted from ore was mixed with burning coal and gave good iron. material from the site

Machine Henry Maudsley

Now the old ways of processing metals stood in the way of the industrial revolution. Working at the machine, the turner held the cutter in his hands, bringing it to the rotating part. Naturally, with this method, it was very difficult for, say, James Watt to adjust the dimensions of the piston and cylinder. It is simply impossible to make the same screws and nuts. In the late 90s of the XVIII century, a young mechanic Henry Maudsley invented a movable caliper - a tool holder for a lathe. He firmly clamped the cutter, and the turner could use special wheels to move it to the part at any distance, at any angle. Maudsley was the first to use his invention to create standard parts - screws and nuts with the same thread, which could be used to assemble different machines and mechanisms. Now a person could make others with the help of some machines.