Determination of data collection methods. Classification of data according to the way they are obtained Data collection plan Data collection methods

Marketing research is the process of searching, collecting, processing data and preparing information for making operational and strategic decisions in the business system.

Respectively this definition clearly defines the main stages of any marketing research:

• research concept development
• search and collection of information;
• data processing;
• preparation of the final analytical note (report).

One of the most time-consuming and costly stages of any marketing research is the search and collection of information on the problem under study. Depending on the sources of information used, studies are divided into:

• office;
• field.

However, in practice, field and desk research complement each other, solving their specific range of issues.

desk research- search, collection and analysis of already existing secondary information ("desk research"). Secondary information is data previously collected for purposes other than those addressed in currently. The main advantages of working with secondary information are: low cost of work, since there is no need to collect new data; speed of information gathering; the presence of several sources of information; relative reliability of information from independent sources; opportunity preliminary analysis Problems. The obvious disadvantages of working with secondary information are: general the latter; information is often outdated; the methodology and tools used to collect the data may not be appropriate for the purposes of this study. In this regard, desk research is often supplemented by several parallel expert interviews to increase the validity of information.

Field study- search, collection and processing of data specifically for a specific marketing analysis. Any field research is based on primary information, in other words, on newly obtained data to solve a specific problem under study. The main advantages of primary information: data are collected in strict accordance with the exact objectives of the research task; the data collection methodology is strictly controlled. The main disadvantage of collecting field information is the significant cost of material and labor resources.

Depending on the tools (methods) used for collecting field (primary) information, research can be divided into:

• quantitative;
• quality.

Often, the practical implementation of marketing research requires integrated approach- joint use of quantitative and qualitative methods.

Quantitative research is the main tool for obtaining the necessary information for planning and decision-making in the case when the necessary hypotheses regarding consumer behavior have already been formed. Quantitative research methods are always based on clear mathematical and statistical models, which makes it possible, as a result, not to have opinions and assumptions, but to have exact quantitative (numerical) values ​​of the studied indicators. Based on the results of quantitative research, you can calculate the required production volumes, profitability, set the price, product parameters, find unoccupied market niches, and much more. The main merit of quantitative research is that they reduce the risk of making wrong decisions and choosing inaccurate planning parameters. The belief that even without research everything is known about the market often turns into insufficiently thought out and insufficiently effective actions in the market and resembles a trial and error method. Quantitative studies are the most adequate way to quantify:

• market capacity and structure of supply and demand;
• sales volumes of market operators;
• product development prospects;
• the effectiveness of various activities of companies to support and promote the product;
• directions for the development of the product portfolio and its individual components;
• effectiveness of advertising activities;
• efficiency of the distribution network;
• consumer reactions to possible marketing actions of the manufacturer.

Qualitative research, unlike quantitative research, does not focus on statistical measurements, but is based on the understanding, explanation and interpretation of empirical data and is a source of hypothesis formation and productive ideas. Simply put, they answer not the question "how much?", but the questions "what?" "How?" and why?". Qualitative research makes extensive use of projective and stimulating techniques—unstructured, non-directive ways of asking questions that help the researcher uncover motivations, beliefs, attitudes, attitudes, preferences, values, satisfaction levels, concerns, etc., about products or brands. Projective techniques help to overcome such communication difficulties as the verbalization of feelings, relationships, etc., as well as to identify latent motives, implicit attitudes, repressed feelings, etc. Qualitative research finds the greatest use in studying:

• consumption patterns, purchasing behavior and factors that determine choice;
• attitudes towards products, brands and companies;
• degree of satisfaction with existing products;
• buying intentions.

Qualitative research plays an important role in the development of new products, where these studies allow:

• understand whether there is a niche for a new product in the market under study;
• identify attitudes towards new products (or product concepts).

Use of qualitative research at the stage strategic development brand concept, enabling:

• generating a set of ideas regarding the concept of brand positioning;
• brand concept evaluations;
• generating ideas for the creative implementation of strategic concepts;
• assessment of marketing communication elements (name, logo, packaging, TV advertising, etc.)

Another area of ​​application of qualitative methodology is the so-called diagnostic studies. Clearly, consumer perceptions of a product and advertising change over time. Qualitative research in such cases helps to determine the level, direction and nature of changes in brand perception and advertising over time.

In addition, a qualitative methodology can be used when conducting tactical research to select the most successful execution option (execution) of advertising, packaging, logo. For testing, alternative options for visual, textual, and other elements of a specific design of already created advertising, packaging, etc. can be offered.

Information collection methods

Despite the huge number of various research methods and techniques, the general scheme of activities implemented in the framework of market research is quite simple and understandable. The main sources of obtaining marketing information are:

• Interviews and surveys;
• Registration (observation);
• Experiment;
• Panel;
• Expert review.

Interview (poll)- finding out the position of people or obtaining information from them on any issue. A survey is the most common and essential form of data collection in marketing. Approximately 90% of studies use this method. The survey can be oral (personal) or written.

During a written survey, participants receive questionnaires (questionnaires), which they must fill out and return to the destination. Typically, written surveys use closed questions, the answers to which are to choose one of the given. Usually, during written surveys, the questionnaire is sent to representatives target audience, by means of e-mail, postal mailing or facsimile communication. The main disadvantage limiting the use this method, is a long period and a low percentage (on average 3%) of the return of completed questionnaires.

Personal (Face-to-face) and telephone surveys are called interviews.

Telephone interviews are a relatively cheap method of conducting surveys of any level of precision in terms of sample design (the geographic location of the respondents is not critical in terms of the cost of conducting an interview). This method is applicable only in quantitative studies. However, there are objective disadvantages of using this method:

• not quite complete control of the understanding and sincerity of the respondent;
• there is no possibility to present visual materials (samples, cards with answer options);
• unfeasibility of lengthy interviews (on the phone it is difficult to keep the attention of the interlocutor for more than 15 minutes);
• in cities with an insufficient level of telephony, it is impossible to obtain a representative sample.

Face-to-face interviews can be formalized and non-formalized.

With a formalized interview, there is a specific scheme for conducting a survey (usually a questionnaire containing pre-prepared clear wording of questions and well-thought-out models of answers to them). A formalized interview loses much of its meaning if the respondents' answers are not analyzed in terms of their social and demographic (industry and geographical) characteristics. Therefore, it assumes that the "passport" must be filled in, where the data about each respondent is entered, the need for which is again dictated by the research program. Such interviews are conducted on the street, in shops, at public events, at the place of residence of the respondents (door-to-door surveys), etc. Formalized surveys have received the greatest use in the implementation of quantitative research. The main disadvantages of this method are: relatively high cost and insignificant geographical coverage.

Non-formalized interviews are a specific method of collecting information in which there is only a topic and purpose. There is no specific method for conducting the survey. This makes it possible to identify the underlying motives of the consumer's actions, to study both rational and irrational reasons for his purchasing behavior. In practice, informal interviews are used in qualitative research. Non-formalized interviews are individual and group.

Individual non-formalized interviews are conducted with the respondent one on one in the form of a dialogue, while the respondent has the opportunity to express detailed judgments on the problem under study. It is possible to single out such forms of conducting individual non-formalized interviews as in-depth interviews and hall tests.

In-depth interviews are a series of individual interviews on a given topic, conducted according to a discussion guide. The interview is conducted by a specially trained highly qualified interviewer who is well versed in the topic, owns the technique and psychological methods of conducting a conversation. Each interview lasts 15-30 minutes and is accompanied by the active participation of the respondent - he lays out cards, draws, writes, etc. In-depth interviews, unlike structured interviews used in quantitative surveys, allow you to penetrate deeper into the psychology of the respondent and better understand his point of view, behavior, attitudes, stereotypes, etc. In-depth interviews, although time consuming (compared to focus groups), are very useful in situations where the atmosphere of a group discussion is undesirable. This may be necessary when studying individual problems and situations that are not usually discussed in a wide circle, or when individual points of view may differ sharply from socially approved behavior - for example, when discussing issues of gender relations, sex, certain diseases, hidden political beliefs, etc. .P. In-depth interviews are used in testing and developing initial advertising developments ( creative ideas) when it is required to obtain direct, individual associations, reactions and perceptions - without regard to the group. At the same time, the combination of the method of in-depth interviews and focus groups with the same respondents is optimal. And, finally, in-depth interviews are indispensable when conducting qualitative research, when the characteristics of the target group make it impossible to collect respondents in a focus group - i.e. at one time in one place for 2-3 hours. For example, when it comes to busy businessmen, wealthy citizens, narrow professional groups and so on.

Hall - tests- These are personal semi-formalized interviews in a special room. As a rule, premises are used in libraries, shops, halls of administrative buildings, etc. The respondent and the interviewer sit down at a table, and the interview takes place in a structured conversation mode. The need for a hall test is usually due to one of several reasons:

• testing bulky samples that are inconvenient to carry around the apartment or there is no certainty that the apartment will be able to conduct an interview under normal conditions;
• testing is limited to the number of samples;
• use of special equipment (for example, TV-video) for demonstration of the tested material;
• the interview is conducted in crowded places of potential respondents, but it is difficult and not suitable for talking "on your feet".

Hall tests formally refer to quantitative methods for obtaining information. With qualitative methods, the hall test is related by the fact that information is obtained on a relatively small directed sample (from 100 to 400 people), as well as the fact that the respondent is asked to comment (explain) his behavior. To conduct a hall test, representatives of the target group (potential consumers) are invited to a room ("hall") equipped for tasting goods and / or viewing advertising, where they are given the opportunity to demonstrate their reaction to the tested material and explain the reason for their choice. In the course of answering the questions of the questionnaire, the selection criteria, frequency and volume of consumption of brands of the studied product group are determined. The method is applied to evaluate consumer properties new product: taste, smell, appearance and so on. The method is also used when testing brand elements, packaging, audio and video clips, advertising messages (recognizability of an advertising message, memorability, reliability, persuasiveness, understanding of the primary and secondary ideas of advertising, slogan, etc.), etc.).

Group non-formalized interview (focused interview, focus - group) - is a group discussion of issues of interest to representatives of the target audience. The "focus" in such a group is on the subjective experience of people who give their understanding and explanation of a given topic, including all its nuances. The course of the conversation is controlled by the moderator according to a pre-developed plan and is recorded on videotape. As a rule, during the discussion, various projective techniques are used to find out the "real" attitude of consumers to the subject under study, obtaining much deeper and more detailed information than at the level of "ordinary" communication. Usually people do not think specifically about the issues that are discussed in the group, or do not have the opportunity to compare their opinions with the opinions of other people. During the focus group, respondents are asked not only to rate something according to the “like or dislike” principle, but also to explain their point of view. And the subsequent qualified analysis of the results obtained allows us to understand the psychological mechanisms of the formation of one or another opinion of the group members. The main disadvantage of this method is the biased nature of the results. In other words, the results of focused interviews cannot be expressed in numerical terms, for further extrapolation to the general population of research objects. Therefore, in practice, the focus group technique is used in combination with quantitative research methods.

Observation (registration) is a form of marketing research, with the help of which a systematic, systematic study of the behavior of an object or subject is carried out. Observation, unlike polling, does not depend on the readiness of the observed object to report information. Observation is the process of collecting and recording events or special moments associated with the behavior of the object being studied, open or hidden from the observed. The subject of observations can be the properties and behavior of individuals; movement of things, goods, etc. The disadvantage of observations is the impossibility of revealing the opinions, ideas, knowledge of people. Therefore, in practice, observations are usually used in conjunction with other research methods.

Experiment- this is a study of the influence of one factor on another while controlling extraneous factors. Experiments are divided into laboratory, taking place in an artificial environment (product test), and field, taking place in real conditions (market test). The main disadvantages of this method are the significant cost and duration, which significantly limits the use of this method in practical research.

Panel- this is a repeated collection of data from one group of respondents at regular intervals. Thus, the panel is a kind of continuous sampling. It allows you to fix changes in the observed values, characteristics. A panel survey is used to study the opinions of consumers of a certain group over a certain period of time, when their needs, habits, tastes, complaints are determined. The disadvantages of using panels are: the "mortality" of the panel, which manifests itself in the gradual refusal of participants to cooperate or the transition to another consumer category, and the "panel effect", which consists in the conscious or unconscious change in the behavior of participants under long-term control.

Expert review is an assessment of the processes under study qualified specialists- experts. Such an assessment is especially necessary when it is impossible to obtain unmediated information about any process or phenomenon. In practice, to conduct expert assessments, the Delphi method is most often used, the method brainstorming and the synectics method.

Delphi Method- a form of survey of experts, in which their anonymous answers are collected over several rounds and, through familiarization with the intermediate results, they receive a group assessment of the process under study.

The brainstorming method consists in the uncontrolled generation and spontaneous interweaving of ideas by participants in a group discussion of a problem. On this basis, chains of associations arise that can lead to an unexpected solution to the problem.

Synectics is considered a highly creative method. The idea of ​​the method lies in the gradual alienation of the original problem by building analogies with other areas of knowledge. After multistage analogies, a quick return to the original problem is made.

Analysis tools

In the course of processing and analyzing marketing research data, the first step is frequency analysis. The following is a description of the statistical indicators of the studied traits. Among these, the following indicators can be noted:

The mean (arithmetic mean) is the quotient of dividing the sum of all attribute values ​​by their number. It is defined as the sum of the values ​​divided by their number. Describes a collection as a whole. Used only to characterize interval and ordinal scales.

Dispersion- a value equal to the average value of the square of deviations of individual values ​​of features from the average. Used only to characterize interval and ordinal scales.

Average linear deviation- a value equal to the average value of the module of deviations of individual values ​​of features from the average. Used only to characterize interval and ordinal scales.

Standard deviation- a value equal to the square root of the variance. This is a measure of the spread of the measured values. Used only to characterize interval and ordinal scales.

The coefficient of variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the arithmetic mean. Used only to characterize metric scales.

The minimum value is the smallest value of the variable encountered in the data array.

The maximum value is the largest value of the variable encountered in the data array.

The median is the value of the variable in the population unit that is located in the middle of the ranked series of the frequency distribution. Cuts off half of the distribution row. Used only to characterize metric scales.

The upper quartile is the value of the feature that cuts off 3/4 of the distribution series. Used only to characterize metric scales.

The lower quartile is the value of the feature that cuts off 1/4 of the distribution series. Used only to characterize metric scales.

Mode is the most frequently occurring value of a variable, i.e. the value most likely to be encountered in the array.

Frequency - the numerical value of the attribute (number of respondents' answers). Used for all kinds of scales.

Valid percentage - the proportion of the numerical value of the trait from the total population. Used for all kinds of scales.

The second stage of processing and analyzing marketing research data is the description of correlations between the studied variables. Correlation is a measure of the dependence of variables. There are several correlation coefficients that indicate the closeness of the relationship between the variables under study. Correlation coefficients vary from +1 to -1. If the correlation coefficient is -1, then the variables have a strict negative dependence (the higher, the lower), if the correlation coefficient is +1, then the variables have a strict positive dependence (the higher, the higher). It should be noted that if the coefficient is zero, then there is no relationship between the variables. Among the most famous and commonly used correlation coefficients are:

• Pearson correlation coefficient
• Spearman's correlation coefficient
• Cramer's correlation coefficient
• Correlation coefficient Phi.

The verification of the put forward research hypotheses is carried out using correlation, dispersion or factor analyses. As a result of the analysis of the data, the proposed hypothesis is confirmed or rejected, which in any case indicates the result obtained.

Conjoint analysis An analysis method that evaluates and compares product attributes to identify those that have the greatest impact on purchasing decisions. The "Conjoint analysis" method is the best technique for measuring the importance of a particular factor because it forces the respondent to think not about what is important, but only about his preference. The advantage of the method is the ability to identify latent factors that affect consumer behavior. Using this method, you can select the optimal combination of product properties, leaving the product in an acceptable price category.

Cluster analysis is a set of methods that allow one to classify multivariate observations, each of which is described by a certain set of variables. The purpose of cluster analysis is the formation of groups of objects similar to each other, which are commonly called clusters. With the help of cluster analysis, it is possible to segment the market (for example, identifying priority consumer groups). The application of clustering methods to sharding is based on the following assumptions. First, it is believed that by the values ​​of the variables that describe the properties of consumers, it is possible to distinguish groups of similar consumers. Secondly, it is believed that the best marketing results for product promotion can be achieved in the selected segment. It is believed that more significant for the marketing result, the grouping of consumers into a group, taking into account measures of proximity to each other. To substantiate these assumptions, the method of dispersion analysis is used.

Dispersion analysis. Analysis of variance investigates the influence of one or more independent variables on one dependent variable or on several dependent variables. A method of statistical analysis that allows you to determine the reliability of the hypothesis about differences in the average values ​​based on a comparison of the variances (deviations) of distributions (for example, you can test the hypothesis about the differences between two groups of consumers identified using clustering). Unlike correlation analysis, analysis of variance does not make it possible to assess the closeness of the relationship between variables.

Regression analysis. Statistical method for establishing the relationship between independent and dependent variables. Regression analysis based on the constructed regression equation determines the contribution of each independent variable to the change in the studied (predicted) dependent variable. Often used in marketing to forecast demand.

Factor analysis. A set of methods that, on the basis of real-life relationships of features (or objects), make it possible to identify latent (or hidden) generalizing characteristics of the phenomena and processes under study. The main goals of factor analysis are to reduce the number of variables and determine the structure of relationships between variables, that is, the classification of variables. When reducing the number of variables, the final variable includes the most significant features of the combined variables. Classification implies the selection of several new factors from variables related to each other. In marketing, this method is used in connection with the deepening of the analysis consumer behavior, the development of psychographics, etc. tasks in which it is necessary to identify clearly unobservable factors.

The results of field studies are large arrays of variables that are quite difficult to process "manually". Today, in the arsenal of researchers there are many software packages that allow you to optimize and simplify the analysis procedure. The most widely used packages are Vortex, SPSS, Statistica.

The "VORTEX" program is intended for:

• input of primary information collected in the course of applied marketing or sociological research;
• processing and analysis of this information;
• presentation of the results of the analysis in the form of tables, texts, graphs and diagrams with the possibility of transferring them to Microsoft Word and other Windows/NT applications.

Information analysis capabilities:

• The Vortex program allows you to produce descriptive statistics of the variables under study (calculation of statistical indicators: mean, mode, median, quartiles, variance, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, skew, kurtosis, etc.);
• Allows segmentation of consumers according to several characteristics, as well as a description of selected target groups (selection of contexts - sub-arrays of documents for in-depth analysis, for example, only men or only respondents aged 20-25 years).
• Using the Vortex program, you can carry out a correlation analysis that allows you to identify the dependencies of the studied factors that affect the marketing result (calculation for two-dimensional distribution tables of Pearson, Gamma, Lambda, Cramer, Yule, Fisher correlation coefficients, X-square criteria, Student, determination of statistical significance) .

SPSS for Windows is modular, fully integrated, and has everything you need software, designed for all stages of the analytical process: planning, data collection, data access and data management, analysis, reporting and dissemination of results. SPSS for Windows is the best software, which allows solving business problems and research problems using statistical methods.

SPSS software allows for frequency analysis, descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, analysis of variance, cluster analysis, factor analysis, as well as regression analysis.

Using the analytical capabilities of SPSS, you can get the following data:

• The most profitable market segments;
• Strategies for positioning goods / services relative to similar goods / services of competitors;
• Evaluation of the quality of goods / services by customers;
• Prospects for development, new opportunities for growth;
• Confirmation or refutation of research hypotheses.

Statistica is a universal integrated system designed for statistical analysis and data visualization, database management and custom application development, containing a wide range of analysis procedures for use in scientific research, engineering, and business.

Statistica is a modern statistical analysis package that implements all the latest computer and mathematical methods of data analysis. The experience of many people who successfully work with the package indicates that the ability to access new, unconventional methods of data analysis (and Statistica provides such opportunities to the fullest) helps to find new ways to test working hypotheses and explore data.

The Statistica software allows you to carry out the following statistical data processing procedures:

• Descriptive statistics;
• Analysis of multidimensional tables;
• Multivariate regression;
• Discriminant analysis;
• Correspondence analysis;
• cluster analysis;
• Factor analysis;
• dispersion analysis and much more.

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Test questions:

Non-programmed solutions include:
According to J. Dewey, the problem is:
Choose the author of the classification, according to which each of the three identified structural elements (problem, expectations, solutions) can be both known (clear, given) to the decision maker, and not known.
Within the framework of which paradigm is it asserted that the process of developing solutions is rational to the extent that it exists in an expanded form, is stable and not redundant, allows for depersonalization, alienation from a specific decision maker, and replication?
What decisions are based on past bad experience, and are also made with a very high responsibility of the head or company for the task assigned?
To features modern conditions decision making include:
The systems approach is:
What method of analysis of alternatives consists in constructing a model that describes objects and processes in terms of important, but not all, indicators?
Are the concepts system analysis" And " systems approach» synonyms?
The influence of what factors is typical for innovative solutions?
The instructions for organizing the decision-making process are:
What decisions are based on professional use management technologies and development and selection methods?
worker, in functional responsibilities which includes actions to manage the activities of subordinates - these are:
Under what conditions do problems arise when possible outcomes can be described using some probability distribution:
What is the central concept in the concept of decision support systems?
The economic-mathematical method used to make a specific management decision is the method:
The process of transferring tasks and powers to a person who takes responsibility for their implementation is:
What aspects are involved in making any decision?
Which paradigm indirectly contributes to counterproductive stereotypes, such as: changing suppliers, consultants or employees, or choosing management theory month.
Under which paradigm is the decision-making process rational to the extent that it has a high degree of attractiveness for the decision maker, is emotionally charged, mobilizes and fully uses creative potential LPR and contributes to its development?
The principle of decision-making, which determines the need to take into account a combination of factors of a long-term nature, and take into account the consequences of implementing decisions, is the approach:
The key elements of problem definition are:
The main defining feature modern leader is:
The creative paradigm challenges...
How can you imagine the direction of the solution?
T. Schelling is the author of the theory:
The creative paradigm prioritizes...
Some discrepancy (gap) between the goals set or pursued by the decision maker and the actual (or predicted) state of affairs in the controlled system (object, or process) is:
"Correspondence various kinds activities of the organization to the interests of employees and other groups stakeholders" is the definition of ... efficiency.
How is collective decision making carried out?
The stages of the control procedure include:
What task of group activity assumes that the developed solution will be implemented by the performers, and therefore an analysis of their capabilities and interests is necessary?
“The criteria included in the set should provide an adequate assessment of the object of examination or an assessment of the degree of achievement of the goal facing the decision maker, if the set of criteria is intended for this” - this is a description of the property ...
In which country was the Delphi Method first applied?
What managerial decisions are effective?
On what factors does efficiency depend? management decisions?
The initial stage of the decision-making algorithm is?
At what stage of the control procedure should the manager choose one of the three lines of behavior: do nothing, eliminate the deviation, or revise the standard?
In what cases are verbal-numerical scales used?
The main scope of morphological analysis?
What indicator serves as a measure of information uncertainty?
The application of the expert forecasting method is based on the assumption that:
Specific targets for which progress can be measured are:
The concept of "effectiveness of decisions" can be considered as:
Identification of the reaction of participants (organizations, divisions, individuals) to the solution and coordination of their goals and interests is:
“Using various tools, try to imagine the possible future of the organization, which comes as a result of decision» - this is the essence of the method When was the Delphi method developed and first applied?
Group activities include:
Fixation on paper options solutions are:
What method (tool) is intended for solving quality management problems and is also used for identification possible causes problems?
What type of control involves comparing the actual results obtained with the required results either immediately after the completion of the controlled activity, or after a predetermined period of time?
“Using various tools, try to imagine the possible future of the organization that comes as a result of the decision made” - this is the essence of the method. Which of the methods of analyzing an object involves choosing several of its components (elements) and finding alternative solutions for each of the elements?
What type of control is carried out directly in the course of work?
The measure of uncertainty is:
Two or more persons who interact with each other in such a way that each person influences the others and is simultaneously influenced by the others is:
What method is used to present possible solutions and check them for formal completeness?
What type of efficiency is considered as the correspondence of various activities of the organization to the interests of employees and other stakeholder groups?
Depersonification is a hallmark of the … paradigm.
What solutions take into account the balance of interests of stakeholders?
What method is used to generate a sufficiently representative set of random initial data (imitation of real conditions for the development of the system)?
What factors influence how an organization works?
The result of human mental activity, leading to any conclusion and (or) to necessary action- This:
IN technical systems solutions:
What systems can management decisions be oriented towards?
The creative paradigm highlights...
A significant disadvantage of a collective solution is:
What systems combined the capabilities of modern computers, the knowledge and experience of specialists and experts?
The processes of development and implementation of management decisions in any system include:
What decisions need to take into account the uncertainty factor?
The first attempt to formulate the basic concepts related to strategic games was made by ...
Persons entitled to initiate decisions or implement them are:
Which solution is preferred by the organization?
“In the case of a procedure in which, after considering the next pair, the rejected alternative is replaced by a new one, the final decision depends on the order in which the alternatives are presented” - this is the formulation of the voting paradox:
What type of efficiency characterizes the process of achieving the goals of the functioning and development of the organization?
Uncertainty factors include:
Who is the author of the method of morphological analysis and synthesis?
A star network configuration includes:
“Using various tools, try to imagine the possible future of the organization that occurs as a result of the decision made” - this is the essence of the method. What kind of efficiency can be determined if the goal of the decision is expressed by any quantitative indicators related to the activities of the organization as a whole, or in a particular market?
The main reason for the need for control is:
What function of management is ensuring the achievement of the goals set by the organization, the implementation of the adopted management decisions?
The Delphi method should be used under the following conditions:
What concept currently does not have an unambiguous interpretation, since it seems rather difficult to clearly distinguish in the results of the organization's activities as a whole that part that is a direct result of the effectiveness of a management decision?
The main property that a set of criteria should have is:
“The relative effect (efficiency) of a process or operation, defined as the ratio of the effect to the costs that caused its occurrence” is the definition of the concept ...
In what aspect can the information be presented?
Under what conditions are decisions made with risk or uncertainty?
What type of control gives the management of the organization the information necessary for planning if similar work is expected to be carried out in the future:
The intermediate phase between decision and action, largely communicative, including the impact on the social environment - the developers and executors of the decision - is:
The organizational aspect of group management reflects:
The network configuration can be represented as:
The set of methodological tools used to prepare and justify decisions on semi-structured and unstructured problems is:
What elements are included in the concept of "problem situation"?
Individuals who develop solutions, such as developers, designers, managers, are categorized as …
What is the nature of the adopted developed management decision?
A complex set of social and economic forecasts, including such aspects as scientific and technical, political, monetary and financial, is:
Distinctive feature social system is:
The postulates of optimality are:
What groups are united by the concept of "formal methods"?
Collective decision-making involves:
What paradox of voting can be described as the ability of a minority to impose its opinion on the majority while being able to vote, although the process will always be carried out according to the rule of the majority?
The authors of the Delphi method are:
In which group of methods, the dependence of the resulting utility of an alternative on its estimates by many criteria is given without any theoretical grounds?
The key point of applying methods peer review- This:
Obtaining consent to solve the problem by polling without convening the management structure (council, commission) of the organization is the essence of:
Distinctive feature scientific approach is:
The way to achieve organizational goals, a set of methods and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality is:
An illegal, but quite successful way of collecting data on competitors' actions, and this data has often been used to reformulate the goals of the organization, is:
A set of techniques for the selection and precise implementation of rules and instructions when making managerial decisions, which is characterized by the establishment of an analytical, formal relationship between the conditions of the problem being solved and its result - this is ... a method.
“The alternative that receives the largest number of votes is considered accepted by all” is the wording:
The content aspect of group management reflects:
What aspects stand out when managing a group?
The method used to assess the impact of any action under conditions of uncertainty caused by the conscious, malicious actions of the conflicting parties is:
The investigated object, situation, phenomenon or system in a reduced form, that is, it represents what is being investigated, with the help of an enlarged or reduced description of the object or system - this is ... a model.
What methods are aimed at revealing similarities in the patterns of development of various processes?
Main types mathematical models are:
What is the nature of the problem if it can be eliminated by changing only the parameters of the organizational and production system?
The condition for using the analytical method is:
To fulfill all managerial functions in management is mandatory:
What management decisions are the cheapest in terms of the cost of their formation and selection?
computer program, which embodies the components of the experience of experts in such a form that this program Based on the information being processed, it can give the user options or recommend a solution - these are:
“Communication that occurs within the individual himself. The individual speaks to himself. He is both the sender and the receiver” - is a characteristic of ... communication.
A simplified form of a real life situation, phenomenon or object, freed from unnecessary elements or information that makes it difficult to perceive or analyze a real object, phenomenon or situation is:
Distinctive feature modern organization is:
What type of forecast is based on the organization's customer survey results?
Lack of a single ready solution, the answer is an element ...
What models are used to determine the best way to allocate scarce resources in the presence of competing needs?
The conditions for using the statistical method include:
A method that uses both past experience and current assumptions about the future to determine it is:
Additional management functions are:
“The criteria included in the set should provide an adequate assessment of the object of examination or an assessment of the degree of achievement of the goal facing the decision maker, if the set of criteria is intended for this” - this is a property characteristic:
The process of creating a model and its experimental application to anticipate changes in a real situation is:
Some discrepancy (gap) between the goals set or pursued by the decision maker and the actual (or predicted) state of affairs in the controlled system (object or process) is:
Which method is based on the assumption that what happened in the past gives a good enough approximation of the future?
Key elements of the problem include:
A method of influencing the efficiency of an organized or functioning production process, the meaning and content of which boils down to the fact that organizations can simplify work operations if approached from the point of view of effective management- This:
What method is a set of techniques for choosing and accurately implementing rules and instructions when making managerial decisions?
Characteristic features individual decision makers are:
For what decisions is the principle of perspective important?
Within the framework of the Delphi method, the analytical group determines:
The initial stage of the modeling process is:
A functional problem can be solved by:
In what games do the interests of the parties collide, but they cannot be considered directly opposed, since there is a more or less extensive area of ​​compromises, concessions, and cooperation?
The process of finding a way out of the situation and the result of this process are a description of the concept ...
The process of analyzing, forecasting and assessing the situation, choosing and agreeing on the best alternative to achieve the goal is:
The main aspects of forecasting are:
An object of any nature that is capable of replacing the object under study so that its study provides new information about the object under study is:
What kind of modeling is an attempt to predict what will happen in similar situations by examining the statistical relationship between the factor in question and other variables?
What is the nature of the problem if its solution does not yet require a change in functions, but can no longer be achieved by changing the numerical values ​​of individual parameters.
Specialists with deeper knowledge on certain issues who are invited to the organization on a permanent or temporary basis are:
What is the nature of the problem if it can be solved at the level of functions of the organizational and production system?
In technical solution systems:

When studying political processes, the entire methodological arsenal of sociological science is used to collect information: document analysis, observation, polling, experiment, sociometric methods. They are described in detail in the sociological literature, therefore we won't stop at their detailed consideration, but we will try to understand in what cases this or that method is most adequate for the purposes of studying political processes.

Questionnaires and interviews - the most common tool collection of information in the study of electoral behavior, public opinion or value orientations. Research of this kind is often referred to as probing public opinion. The main principle of using survey methods is the use of a sample model, based on the analysis of which it is possible to draw conclusions about the prevailing moods of the entire population.

These methods became widespread in the 1930s. thanks to the activities of J. Gallup . According to experts, his study in 1932 was, in fact, the first example of scientific political analysis using the results of a survey in history. Then J. Gallup predicted the victory of his mother-in-law Ola Babcock Miller in the struggle for elections to the administration of the state of Iowa. J. Gallup attracted increased attention of the press and the public in 1936, when 5 months before the US presidential election predicted the victory of F. Roosevelt, as opposed to the forecast of the Literary Digest magazine. A little-known analyst criticized the popular publication for the incorrect procedure for selecting respondents. Further developments fully confirmed the forecast of J. Gallup, made by him on the basis of his own selective study, during which only 3,000 postcards were sent out. This success and the whole plot of events around the elections made J. Gallup a figure of national scale. His name became famous in every house, and successful prediction of the outcome presidential elections, proved the advantage of a new approach to the study of electoral behavior. And this, in turn, became the starting point for a radical revision of the practice of conducting sociological surveys of the population that existed at that time.

Pre-election sounding, in addition to solving such a practical problem as preparing a forecast for the upcoming elections based on measuring the moods of respondents, provides valuable material for the scientific analysis of factors influencing the formation of electoral behavior of voters. It is carried out by studying the relationship between the sociological and psychological characteristics of voters and their actual behavior when choosing a particular candidate or party.

Sociological surveys are also widely used to study other aspects of the political process, such as the characteristics of political culture, the legitimacy of the political system and its individual institutions, the attitude of the population to the current political course, etc.

In modern practice, such a type of survey is often used as interviewing. This method, like others, has its advantages and disadvantages. According to J. Mannheim and R. Rich, “a face-to-face interview is at the same time one of the worst and one of the best methods of collecting information available to the researcher" 30 .

The benefits of interviewing are obvious. In a questionnaire survey, the researcher distributes or sends out forms to respondents with a request to answer the questions posed. However, he cannot be sure that they will all be filled in correctly, and there is no guarantee that they will return filled at all. In face-to-face interviews, the situation is different. The interviewer, according to the respondent, fills out the interview forms himself. Thus , firstly, it excludes the possibility of transferring the questionnaire to be filled out to another person who will violate the sample , secondly, the interviewer controls the situation, which allows avoiding the influence of third parties on the answers of the respondent, thirdly, if necessary, the interviewer can correctly bring the questions of the questionnaire closer to the capabilities of the respondent.

The most significant drawback of this method is related to the fact that in an interview situation circumstances arise that provoke the respondent to reactions that may interfere with the communication process. Irritation of the respondent can be caused by the appearance or manner the behavior of the interviewer, the wording of the questions, or the very environment in which the interview is conducted ... And as a result, there is a high probability of information “hindrances” that are related not only real world how much to the polling process itself.

Depending on the goals and objectives of the study, the interview strategy may vary in the degree of formalization: from standard selective interviewing to directed and specialized.

When conducting standard sample interview respondents are considered as representatives of the general population. Communication between the interviewer and the respondent is strictly regulated by a detailed questionnaire and deviation from it is not allowed. The purpose of such a survey is to obtain information that can be used to quantitatively compare the answers of respondents, which will allow further generalization of the answers for the general population as a whole.

At directed (focused) interview the respondent requires a special approach to the extent that the unique information at his disposal suggests. With a directed interview, most often there is no pre-designed rigid questionnaire, but there is only a general plan of the conversation, on which the interviewer relies. A directed interview is conducted in cases where, in order to solve a research problem, it is necessary to get answers to questions from a certain circle or type of people. It is able to provide the researcher with information that is most essential for understanding nature or meaning of some phenomenon, and which cannot be obtained in any other way. In a directed interview, the survey involves not randomly selected respondents, but representatives of special groups - elites. For example, the researcher has the right to build hypotheses about the motives, about the logic and about the significance of accepting one or another political decision, but the true picture can be seen only by finding out the opinion of the participants in this process themselves. However, when using guided interviews, it should be borne in mind that there is a danger of receiving false information, since each source is inevitably subjective. Vanity, the desire to hide personal or corporate interest in the development of events in a certain direction, distrust of the interviewer, etc. - all this can affect the nature of the information received. Therefore, it must be remembered that information coming from people who know the situation from the inside cannot replace a sober theoretical understanding of this subject by superimposing their own analytical and conceptual data on those collected during the survey.

In some types of research, scientists need information that is not obtained from unique respondents, and not from respondents representing the general population, but from typical representatives of some fairly narrow group. This makes it necessary to specialized interview. Interview children, illiterate adults, prisoners, slum vagabonds, the mentally ill, immigrant workers, etc. are all examples of specialized interviews. Such a survey differs from a selective whole in a number of ways. First, in a specialized survey, it happens that the researcher and the respondent speak different languages. Secondly, the researcher has no right to expect the respondent to be able to read, reason, or follow the development of someone else's argument. Under such conditions, communication can be very difficult, and the reliability of answers may decrease. That's why this species The survey involves a preliminary gradual establishment of contact with the respondents.

An example of the need to establish such contact is a survey of schoolchildren on the problems of the country's political development. Here the researcher must explain to the respondents the basic concepts of the topic, and only then proceed to the survey itself. In addition to the basic questions, follow-up answers should also be asked to ensure that understanding is achieved. Such an interview can be a very rich source of information for the researcher. However, to be effective, it requires almost artistic skills from the researcher.

Content analysis method focused on conducting objective, measurable and verifiable research into the content of political messages. This method assumes that, based on knowledge of the content of messages, the researcher can draw conclusions about the intentions of the communicator or the possible effects of the message. Thus, it is assumed that the meaning of the message can be relatively easily retrieved from itself. The main premise of this method is that the quantitative characteristics of the text are its important parameters, allowing one to draw certain conclusions. It is significant that within the framework of content analysis, no differences are made in terms of the degree of significance between the units under study - the focus is only on the frequency of their occurrence.

In politics, the content analysis method is widely used in the study of electoral behavior. organized groups such as political parties. The source of information can be both official documents (publications, minutes of meetings of committees, meetings, etc.) and personal (diaries, letters). In addition, this method allows you to analyze the activities of an individual politician, for example, by studying his public speeches.

The method of content analysis is widely used in the study of political communication materials. This method allows you to determine the degree of compliance of the message with the intentions of the communicator and the specifics of the channel, to study the relationship between the characteristics of the message and the attitudes of the audience, as well as its real and communicative behavior. Using this method, you can answer, for example, the following questions. What qualities of the candidate were most often mentioned in the materials published in a particular publication? What is the overall image of the parties involved in a political conflict in the programs of one or another TV channel? What are the differences in the coverage of the strike movement in the materials of central and regional publications, etc.?

Laboratory experiments have limited application in the social sciences, where it is rather difficult to build experimental models by separating the process or phenomenon under study from external influences. Scientists who study political processes usually do not have the opportunity to conduct rigorous scientific experiments, and for the most part are forced to abandon the use of this method. However, in some cases, it is possible to include an experimental element in the research process using the following methods:

a variation of the questionnaire itself;

playing various scenarios for the development of an event or process;

testing reactions to political propaganda;

manipulation of information by increasing its availability to small groups of residents.

Striking examples of the use of this method in the study of political processes are studies of the impact of media materials on the audience.

IN domestic practice The first experimental test of the hypothesis about the influence of media messages on the mass political consciousness and electoral behavior of Russians was a study carried out in November-December 1999 by the ZIRCON research group. As part of this project a series of socio-psychological experiments was carried out in Tomsk, Voronezh and Salekhard. The situation of information influence was modeled in such a way that three special groups of respondents (25-27 people each) were recruited in each city. Participants in the first group made a commitment to watch a specific TV program or read a specified newspaper every day during the experiment. The participants of the second group pledged to stop watching (or reading) for the entire duration of the project. The third group was the control group: no obligations were imposed on its participants. Thus, within the framework of the study, the situation of the maximum possible and minimum possible consumption of information broadcast by specific media was modeled. To find out how the political preferences of the participants in the experiment changed, three control polls were conducted during the study. The prerequisite for the study was the desire to directly test the validity of the widely held belief that the media "push" citizens to vote for certain candidates. We will not dwell on the description of the conclusions obtained. We only note that the results of the experiment confirmed the influence of media materials on voters' preferences, as well as the ability of the media to induce them to vote for individual candidates. At the same time, the effect of influence at the level of deeper relations and thoughts of the voter was not recorded 31 .

4. Methods of data analysis.

Data collection and analysis is a kind of dialogue between at world of people, institutions, processes and researchers. The prerequisites for choosing one or another method of analysis are the nature of the data themselves, the theoretical approach within which the researcher works when collecting them (“statistical” or “humanitarian”).

In a somewhat simplified form, these two approaches can be represented as follows.

Statistical approach.

Within the framework of this approach, the researcher proceeds from the premise that mass phenomena are of a statistical nature, i.e. if we study a sufficiently large number of manifestations of the studied social phenomenon, then the phenomenon itself will be known. The individual in this case acts as a representative of a certain community, a carrier of information about a social phenomenon. Individuals are interchangeable and their individual characteristics as such are of little interest.

Here it is necessary to make a division between primary and secondary data. The primary type of data refers to those that were obtained directly by the researcher, while the secondary data are the result of processing data from studies made in the past. The most important argument against the use of secondary data is that they limit the freedom and possibilities of the scientist, since they were obtained for the purposes of another study. Indeed, it is very difficult for a researcher working with secondary data to go beyond the system that was designed before him, and for which these data were collected and processed. However, sometimes secondary data have significant advantages over primary data: accessibility and low price. In some cases, the researcher may have no other alternative than to use just secondary data. For example, we cannot develop a questionnaire in relation to the Caribbean crisis and go with it to 1962, directly observe the collision of the Prague Spring of 1968, and record the lively reaction of contemporaries of these events. However we can analyze data from past years. In these cases, the main source of secondary data for us will be the reports of government statistics, the results of public opinion polls, for example, data from the Gallup service in the USA, Eurobarometer in Europe, VTsIOM in Russia, etc. Even newspaper publications can act as a source of such information.

Having decided what type of data - primary or secondary - will be used in the study, and having collected these data, the scientist can proceed directly to the analysis process. Analyzing the data obtained, the researcher tries to answer the questions “What is it?”, “Why is this happening?”, “How much of it?” etc. To get answers to these and other questions, it is necessary to build a certain model that will display the relationships and relationships between the studied phenomena, processes and objects. Let us consider further what kind of models can be built for the study of political processes.

One-dimensional model. This is the simplest single variable model. The purpose of its construction is to obtain an answer to the relatively simple questions "How much?" So what is this?". For example , How many voters voted for this party? What is the electorate of a certain candidate? The answers to these questions give a one-dimensional distribution of feature values. To study such a variable as electoral choice, it is enough to count the number of people who voted for a particular party or candidate and present these values ​​as a percentage distribution. The same applies to variables measured on nominal scales (“Which religion do you belong to?”, “Specify your profession”, etc.). Usually, if we measure a variable on a quantitative or interval scale, knowledge of the one-dimensional distribution of attribute values ​​is not enough, especially since there are incomparably more analysis possibilities for such variables than for nominal ones. Researchers are interested some measures, which in the language of mathematical statistics are called measures of central tendencies . These include the average or typical value of a trait, as well as measures of the spread of trait values ​​around their average value. For example, an analysis of income may include calculating the average income and the percentage of people who have incomes above and below the average.

binary model. The essence of this model is the assumption that two variables A and B are related. Thus, several models can be built: A is the cause of B, B is the cause of A, A and B mutually influence each other, A and B are influenced by a third variable. In all these cases, the following methods of analysis are used: a table of mutual contingency of features, correlation analysis.

Table of mutual contingency of signs is constructed to study the relationships between variables.

Table. Electorates of electoral associations following the results of elections to the Duma in 1999 (%) 32

This table, for example, establishes a link between age and voting for parties in elections in State Duma in 1999. The table is constructed in such a way that it is possible to trace the difference in the age structure of the electorate of different parties.

At first glance, the following trend is obvious: younger voters are more likely than representatives of other age groups to vote for democratic parties, while older voters vote for left-wing parties. However, such a conclusion can't serve direct statistical confirmation of the hypotheses put forward by the researcher. These guesses are crude at best. In more complex situations, such an analysis is often unreliable. To establish the degree of correspondence of the hypothesis with the data, such a statistical method as correlation analysis, aimed at measuring and studying the relationship between two variables, helps.

Methods of correlation analysis allow answering very important questions that arise in the study of relationships between variables. For example, do changes in the values ​​of one variable (the independent variable) affect, and if so, to what extent, changes in the values ​​of the other (the dependent variable)? What is the form and direction of the identified connection? Is the identified relationship characteristic of the entire population, and not just the sample?

As a result, several explanatory schemes can be constructed.

For example, when analyzing relationship between age and party choice, it is reasonable to assume that age may influence party choice, while party choice cannot affect age. The connection fixed in this model is called one-way.

The researcher cannot reliably establish whether the choice of newspaper influenced the formation of party preferences or already established party preferences forced people to choose certain newspapers.

It is also possible that two variables are influenced by a third, unknown variable. However, this connection is already beyond the scope of binary analysis and becomes the subject of multiple analysis.

Multiple analysis. When three or more variables are included in the system, the researcher can enrich analysis by building such models as regression, interactive, path and multifactorial.

The basic premise of a regression model is that two or more variables, called "independent" variables, have an additive effect on the "dependent" variable. Moreover, the regression model allows you to separate the influence of each independent variable from each other and determine the strength of this influence. Let's say we want to know which variables affect the choice of a batch. To do this, it is necessary to build a model that includes a number of independent variables. For example, the choice of party may be influenced by belonging to social group and religion.

Thus, when building this model, you can operate with the following regression equation:

Party Choice = Social Group + Religion.

However, the indicators "social group" and "religion" may be influenced by another variable, such as age. Then the researcher needs to turn to the control procedure or interactive model, which includes a whole chain of interactions: age interacts with belonging to a social group and religion in their influence on the choice of party. In the 60s. Butler and Stokes, for example, showed that in the younger age cohorts belonging to a social group is more significant than in other age categories, and religion - in older ones.

Data of this kind can be analyzed by adding a control procedure to the standard regression model.

The regression model can be useful for testing various research hypotheses, but in practice it often does not reflect the entire complexity of the objective world, the entire chain of causes and relationships. In this case, models are used path analysis, or path analysis, which builds a chain of direct and indirect effects of one variable on another. Consider as an example psychological identification with the party and approval of its policies. Obviously, the approval of the policy of the party increases the overall party identification, but the opposite case is also quite possible. For most people (here we mean the situation characteristic of developed liberal democracies), adherence to the party is formed long before they understand and realize its political platform. Thus, there is a certain flow of opposite interactions, the direction of which can be difficult to determine. However, this can be done with the help of path analysis, empirically building a chain of causality.

Another method used in multiple analysis is multivariate analysis. The essence of multivariate analysis is to answer the question of whether a system of interrelated variables is dependent on two (or more than two) underlying hidden factors. Hence , the purpose of multivariate analysis is to discover hidden factors. Traditionally, political studies highlight several hidden factors, or, as they are also called, splits that underlie many phenomena and processes, for example, a split into "left" and "right" in relation to political settings, as well as contradictions structured along the axes " hard-soft" and "liberal-authoritarian".

Using multivariate analysis, we can build the following model:

The constructed model identifies only two factors and, accordingly, two groups of variables that are directly affected by them. In a real situation, of course, the existence of a larger number of significant factors is possible. Inclusion or exclusion of variables from subgroups must be done based on the so-called factor weight, i.e. its influence on a certain group of variables.

Time series analysis. Many social and political processes and events do not happen once, but are repeated. The course of many political processes can be stretched out for years, decades and even centuries. Studies that study such processes and events are called trend or panel studies. The main method in this case is the analysis of time series. Time series is a set of observations in which the same variable is measured repeatedly at certain intervals. In political research, time series analysis is most often used to predict support for parties (especially government ones). At the same time, researchers proceed from a combination of various factors, for example, economic conditions (unemployment, inflation, living standards, etc.) and crisis events (armed conflicts, strikes, government and parliamentary crises, etc.).

A model that meets the goals of time series analysis is as follows:

The main method used in the analysis of time series is the construction of a regression equation, where indicators measured at different time periods act as independent variables.

All the methods and analyzes described above, related to the so-called statistical paradigm, have become widespread in the study of political processes due to two major developments that have revolutionized the study of political processes. The first relates to conducting sampling studies to predict the outcome of US elections. From 1824 to 1936, research was carried out in line with a certain tradition, when enough people participated in the surveys. big number respondents. J. Gallup broke this tradition. The result was, firstly, the breaking of the monopoly governments on quantitative information and, secondly, a sharp reduction in the costs of collecting initial political data. From now on, statistics have ceased to be "official". The second achievement refers to the 50s, when it became possible to use computer technology for statistical data analysis.

These changes affected, first of all, research related to the study of the behavior, attitudes and opinions of citizens. As a result of the changes that have taken place, there has been a significant expansion of the object and subject of political research. If earlier scientists studied mainly political institutions and the highest political elite using relatively primitive quantitative methods, now, thanks to the use of new technologies for collecting and analyzing data, political science has been enriched by studies of the mass political behavior of citizens and the middle-level elite 33 .

humanitarian approach.

Proponents of this approach believe that with the help of rigidly formalized methods of analysis it is impossible to look into the depth of phenomena and processes. The individual is unique. He is not a manifestation of the phenomenon, but the phenomenon itself. Political actors are seen as conscious beings who shape the political world just as it shapes them. Therefore, the most adequate for the study of political processes are the so-called qualitative methods, using which the researcher is looking for answers to the questions “What is it? Why is this? Where does it come from? What are the reasons for this?

The separation of statistical and humanitarian approaches is based on the existence in the scientific world of two points of view regarding the study of reality - positivism and relativism. The use of quantitative methods is based on positivist traditions. These traditions involve the study of political processes on the basis of empirical observation and testable theory. That is why positivists pay so much attention to the operationalization of theoretical concepts, i.e. translation of theoretical concepts into observable and measurable indicators.

Critics of positivism argue that external reality does not exist. There is only a socially constructed reality in which conscious individuals themselves interpret their behavior and the behavior of others, endow their actions with subjective meanings. In this process, people are not passive elements, but act as active actors in assessing the meaning of their own and others' actions. They shape the world just as it shapes them. This means that the explanation of the world in general and political processes in particular must proceed from the description and understanding of people as conscious and social actors. Their motivations, experiences, and subjective interpretations are important components of the causal chain of events. The tasks of such an analysis are solved using qualitative methods.

Qualitative methods is the general name for a wide range of information gathering and analysis techniques, such as participant observation (overt and covert), intensive interviewing (in-depth individual and group interviews), etc.

Qualitative methods play a large, though not always recognized, role in the study of political processes. These methods are applicable in cases where the purpose of the study is to study the subjective experience of people and the meanings that they put into their actions. Intensive interviewing, for example, allows people to freely express their opinions in the language in which they are accustomed to communicate on a daily basis, to offer their own interpretations of events. The free flow of communication allows you to understand the logic of the arguments and the chain of associations that led the participants to a certain type of behavior. The explanation of events involves understanding and interpretation, and not a description of the general laws of mass behavior. Finally, qualitative methods draw some attention to the contextual aspects of events by placing respondents' attitudes and behaviors in the context of their individual biography and wider social environment. Thus, qualitative methods draw attention to the meanings, process and context of the course of events.

Traditionally, qualitative methods are used in the study of the process of involvement in politics, ways of forming elites, hierarchical structure, power relations, meanings and plot of the political process. Intensive interviews, for example, were conducted with pressure group activists to study political communities (Grant and Marsh, Mills, Smith). The internal politics of the parties were also studied by interviewing party functionaries. and members of representative bodies of power (Sade, Whiteley). Qualitative methods are quite widely used in the study of municipal government policy in Britain. (Dearlov, Giford, Lowndes and Stoker) and USA (Jones and Batchelor, Stone). To a lesser extent, qualitative methods are used in studies concerning the central government, the reason for which, most likely, is the greater closeness of "high" politics.

An area in which qualitative methods are practically absent is the field of electoral research. Here, the main method of obtaining information is national sample surveys, supplemented more recently by panel surveys conducted after elections. However, qualitative methods began to penetrate into this area, the use of which is supported by the argument that electoral studies based on the use of quantitative methods do not enrich our knowledge with an understanding of the motives and factors of political behavior.

Statistical and humanitarian approaches are often oppose each other. Adherents of qualitative methods criticize the supporters of the statistical approach, putting forward a whole range of comments, claims and even accusations. Researchers who favor quantitative methods are blamed for placing too much emphasis on statistical procedures. At the same time, supposedly, the understanding of the essence of the studied phenomena and processes, the causal chain of events remains aside.

It is also argued that proponents of quantitative methods misunderstand the subject of their research. An elementary error in sample design can lead to collection errors and distortion of conclusions. For example, public opinion researchers in Russia often refer only to European Russians. Government or so-called official statistics, which researchers rely on, can distort the real situation. Respondents may lie to hide their embarrassment, not to express socially disapproved opinion or judgment.

Proponents of quantitative methods are also reproached for focusing too narrowly on the subject of research, they compare these methods with a bright lantern that illuminates only an insignificant part of reality on a dark night. This argument is illustrated, in particular, questionnaires with a fixed fan of possible answers, which, according to critics, can significantly limit the respondents' right to express their own opinion. Consequently, with "rigid", formalized surveys, it is impossible to penetrate into the subtle matter of the motives and meanings of the behavior and actions of the respondents.

In turn, qualitative methods are also criticized, of course, by adherents of quantitative methods. It is proposed to accept the following as initial and true statements. Quantitative Methods are representative and verifiable. Statistical analysis turns research findings into something beyond question. Results from a single study can be generalized to large populations of phenomena with a high degree of certainty. Finally, quantitative studies provide "hard" scientific evidence. At the same time, it is believed that qualitative methods have serious shortcomings, among which the following are noted. First, the non-representativeness of the sample formed for the study. Secondly, the possibility of distorting the opinion of the interviewee due to close contact with the interviewer. Thirdly, the complexity of the analysis and interpretation of the information received, arising from the subjective nature of the data themselves. Fourthly, the impossibility of creating a generalizing theory based on the collected data. Accordingly, qualitative research is atypical. The conclusions obtained from their use are considered partial and supported only by impressions. In general, the work in this direction cannot be classified as strictly scientific.

There can be no winner in this dispute. It should be recognized that both qualitative and quantitative methods have their limitations. Therefore, the most important conclusion arising from the consideration of the two concepts is that the choice of approaches or the balance of their combination should be determined by the goals of research, research tasks, research situation. This means that the following must be kept in mind. Since the statistical and humanitarian approaches involve the use of different methods of collecting and interpreting information, they must be applied to different types initial data, and the correct final result can be obtained only with the correct formulation of the problem.

Neither the supporters of quantitative methods, nor their opponents from the camp of adherents of humanitarian approaches have a monopoly on the truth. It would be a gross mistake to make any approach that claims to be universal an absolute. The world is too complex and multidimensional to be known using only one, even a very subtle and perfect tool, and the skill of a researcher lies in mastering and in the ability to creatively apply all the tools developed by the scientific community.

Questions for self-control:

What are the main general scientific methods used to analyze the sociological aspects of political processes?

What information gathering methods are used in the analysis of political processes?

What is the difference between statistical and humanitarian approaches to data analysis?

What methods of analysis are used in binary models of the interaction of the studied phenomena and processes?

What are the disadvantages statistical methods analysis?

What are the features of applying the methods of analysis used in the framework of the humanitarian approach?

Literature for self-study.

Vyatr E. Sociology political relations. - M, 1979.

Mannheim J.B., Rich R.K. Political science. Research methods. - M., 1997.

Political sociology. Ed. ???- M., 1993.

Tatarova G.G. Methodology of data analysis in sociology (introduction). Textbook for high schools. - M., 1999.