Scientific discoveries that led us into space: Rockets. The history of the appearance of rockets Where rockets are made

What is a space rocket? How is it different from the usual one? A space rocket is a composite, multi-stage, liquid-fueled rocket. Nobody came up with such a rocket in finished form right away!

The first simple rockets appeared in the 13th century in China.

Sketches and drawings of the first multi-stage rockets appeared in the works of military technician Konrad Haas (1556) and scientist Kazimir Semenovich (1650). It is he, according to many experts, who is the first inventor of a multi-stage rocket. But these were military engineering projects. Neither Haas nor Semenovich intended to use them for space purposes.

The first to propose the idea of ​​using a multi-stage rocket for space flight was
in the 17th century ... Cyrano de Bergerac in his fantastic story A Journey to the Moon (1648).

But the fact is that an ordinary multi-stage rocket on solid fuel(mainly offered gunpowder) was not suitable for space flights. A fundamentally different type of fuel was needed.

And finally, at the beginning of the 20th century, in 1903, our compatriot K. E. Tsiolkovsky figured out how to teach a rocket to fly in space. He came up with LIQUID two-component fuel! - First proposed design space rocket with a liquid jet engine! This is his great merit. And that is why Tsiolkovsky is considered one of the founders of astronautics (although he did not manage to offer a workable rocket design). "One of" - because there are only three of them. In addition to our Tsiolkovsky, this is also the American Robert Goddard and the German Hermann Oberth.

Goddard in 1914 was the first to finally propose a prototype of a real space rocket - a multi-stage liquid fuel rocket. That is, Goddard brought together two fundamental ideas - the idea of ​​multistage and the idea of ​​liquid fuel. Multistage + Liquid fuel = Space rocket. That is, the project of a real space rocket first appeared precisely in the works of Goddard. Moreover, the design of the Goddard rocket provides for a sequential separation of stages. It was Goddard who, in 1914, first received a patent for the invention of multi-stage rockets.
Moreover, Goddard was engaged not only in theoretical calculations. He was also practical! In 1926, it was Goddard himself who built the world's first liquid-propellant (liquid-fueled) rocket. Built and launched! (Albeit then not at a very high altitude, but this was only the first test run!)
So if the phrase “invented the space rocket” refers to someone to a greater extent, it is precisely to Goddard.

Only one of the three “fathers”, Hermann Oberth, was destined to witness the launches of multi-stage space rockets. In 1923, his book was published, in which he proposed a two-stage rocket for space flight. The release of this work had a huge resonance in society! Even the Soviet newspaper Pravda repeatedly wrote about the idea of ​​"the German professor Oberth, who came up with a way to fly into space." Oberth was also a practitioner. He also built his own rocket.

In addition to the traditionally called three "fathers", perhaps one can also name the fourth founder of astronautics - Yuri Kondratyuk, who in his work "To those who will read to build" gave circuit diagram and a description of a 4-stage oxy-hydrogen rocket. Work on the manuscript began in 1916 and was completed in 1919. Kondratyuk is famous, first of all, for the fact that it was he who calculated the optimal flight path to the Moon. These calculations were used by NASA in the Apollo lunar program. The trajectory proposed by him in 1916 was later called the “Kondratyuk route”.

Yesterday the President visited Samara, where he visited one of the leading Russian enterprises- OJSC Rocket and Space Center (RCC) Progress - and held a meeting on the socio-economic development of the region.

Vladimir Putin began inspecting factory products right from the helipad on the factory site. Here, the president was shown samples of aviation and water equipment. The head of state even sat at the helm of the Rysachok twin-engine turboprop aircraft, which is produced at the enterprise.

The history of the enterprise began with airplanes. Since 1917, it was the State Aviation Plant No. 1, and it was located in Moscow. And a bicycle repair shop was born back in 1894, and everything started from it. The plant was evacuated to Samara (then called Kuibyshev) in 1941. From here, Il-2 and Il-10 attack aircraft, MiG-3 fighters were sent to the front. And in 1959, the first serial intercontinental ballistic missile took off from the Baikonur test site, since April 12, 1961, all launches of domestic space crews produced on Samara carriers.

The modern history of the enterprise is also successful. Vladimir Putin was shown and told about international and promising projects factory. For example, the Soyuz international project, which is being implemented at the Guiana Space Center, involves about 50 launches of launch vehicles over 15 years, which provides Progress with a long-term order for the production of Soyuz-ST class rockets.

The company is working on promising space projects for the creation of new medium-class rockets of the Soyuz-5 type, launch vehicles of heavy and super-heavy classes for flights to the Moon and Mars, production of small spacecraft and other high-tech projects.

In the shop for assembly and testing of launch vehicles used to launch manned and transport spaceships, the president was shown both serial and prototype launch vehicles - the main product of the enterprise.

As told CEO plant Alexander Kirilin, for 50 years at the Samara RCC, nine modifications of medium-class launch vehicles have been created - Vostok, Molniya, Soyuz. And over the years, more than 1800 of them have been launched, and also 980 spacecraft, which are also made at Progress. Moreover, they solve many problems, including national security, scientific and economic goals.

In the evening, in the administrative building of the plant, Vladimir Putin held a meeting on social and economic development Samara region. Its participants were government ministers, Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin and leaders large enterprises areas in oil refining, automotive, aerospace and housing.

Chapter 1

Introduction to rocket and space technology

Stages of development of rockets and rocket technology

The history of the development of rockets dates back to ancient times. The appearance of rockets is inextricably linked with the invention of gunpowder, the combustion products of which create a reactive force capable of imparting a relatively high speed to the rocket. The literature indicates that the recipe for making gunpowder was known in China, India, Arab countries, but where gunpowder first appeared is still unknown. It is believed that rockets (“fiery arrows”) were used in China as early as the 10th-12th centuries.

The use of rockets as weapons has always been conditioned by the relatively high energy capabilities of rockets, which made rockets effective in combat use. However, the constant rivalry of other types of projectile throwing, as a rule, led at many stages of the creation of rockets to the abandonment of the use of the latter. The main reason for the failure was the low accuracy of hitting the target with missiles compared to competing systems. This is due to the fact that in non-rocket systems, the message of the required speed to the projectile, bullet, etc. is carried out in a short section of the projectile's movement along the guide, which can be pointed quite accurately at the target.

As a result, it is possible to orient the projectile velocity vector, the value of which is formed when the projectile moves in the barrel, more or less accurately, and it is relatively little affected by the external conditions of the projectile flight. However, these same conditions require that the projectile be given large accelerations, and, consequently, large loads caused by reactions acting on the propelling device. This makes it necessary to manufacture a non-rocket projectile system that is much heavier than the mass of the projectile (hundreds of times).

IN missile system the message of speed to the projectile occurs mainly outside the launcher, on a relatively long section of the flight path. This leads to the fact that the acceleration of the projectile is small, therefore, the loads on the throwing system are also small. The weight of the rocket launcher becomes comparable to the weight of the rocket, and may differ by only a few times.

"Fire arrows" were widely used in India. Europeans (British) first encountered "fiery arrows" during the colonization of India. A military engineer, Colonel William Congreve, took up the study of them. He took the missiles to England, improved them, and achieved the adoption of missiles by the British army. The missiles were widely and successfully used in the fighting of the British army. So in 1807, during the war with Napoleon, the English fleet during the siege of Copenhagen almost completely destroyed the city with the help of rockets. issue 2 page 152 fig. 7; page 159 fig. 11. The appearance of missiles in the arsenal of England forced them to be taken up in other countries.

In Russia, rockets are described in the "Charter" by Anisim Mikhailov, written by him in 1607-1621. Under Peter I, rockets were widely used in the Russian army. In the early 80s of the 17th century, the Rocket Institute was established in Moscow, which was then transferred to St. Petersburg. At the beginning of the 18th century, a signal rocket was created in it, which was in service with the Russian army for more than a century and a half. issue 2, page 159 figure 11.

One of the first creators of military rockets for the Russian army was General Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko (1779 - 1837). He created successful ricochet and incendiary rockets that were used in rocket companies and batteries of the Russian army.

In the 40s of the last century, the Russian scientist General Konstantinov K. I. developed scientific foundations calculation and design of powder rockets. issue 2 p. 160 fig. 12. Using his methods, rockets with a firing range of up to 4-5 km were created, which became an effective weapon of the Russian army.

However, the development of rifled artillery in the second half of the 19th century, which made it possible to obtain a greater range of fire and more high precision and lesser hit dispersion displaced rockets. As already noted, the impact of external loads (aerodynamic, caused by inaccuracy in the manufacture of the projectile, propelling installation, etc.) on the projectile during flight in the acceleration section under the action of a reactive force leads to large angular deviations of the projectile velocity vector from the required value, and hence to deviations of the parameters the movement of the projectile along the trajectory. These deviations significantly exceeded similar deviations of artillery guns developed in the second half of the 19th century, the accuracy of firing rockets was much lower than the accuracy of shells when firing from these guns. This was the reason for the refusal to use missiles as projectiles to hit targets.

In the course of the development of methods of armed struggle during the period of rapid development of science and technology in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, there was a transition to positional wars, the conduct of which required a huge strain on the entire economic and moral potential of the enemy countries and the expenditure of large human resources, the organization of economic management of these countries , maneuver forces and means across the country.

In the course of such wars, the requirements for the possibility of hitting enemy targets at a considerable distance from the front line of the armed struggle of the fighting armies constantly increased. Such facilities included control centers, communication centers of all types, the most important centers of energy supply, industrial production, accumulation of troops, military equipment, and the main warehouses of various stocks. To cause moral damage to the population of the country and to reduce its labor resources it was considered possible to strike at large settlements enemy.

One of the first attempts to create a means of delivering a live projectile deep behind enemy lines (according to the concepts of that time) was the creation in Germany during the First World War of an ultra-long-range weapon designed to fire at targets located at a distance of 200-250 km from the gun.

The unique experience of using this weapon showed that the effectiveness of such a throwing system is extremely low. To deliver a projectile weighing 7 kilograms to the target, it was necessary to create a gun weighing 350 tons, with a low rate of fire, having very low survivability due to the extremely high load on the barrel when fired.

In addition, the circular deviation of the projectile from the aiming point, equal to 2 km, was so large that it was really possible to fire at area targets such as big city That was Paris. This showed that with such dispersion parameters, an increase in efficiency to an acceptable level can be achieved only by a sharp increase (by hundreds of times) in the mass of the warhead. That is, it was impossible to succeed on the way of using receiver systems to deliver such a charge to the target.

The development of aviation in the first two decades of the 20th century could suggest that the use of aircraft would solve the problem. Already at the end of the First World War, all major belligerent countries created bombers capable of delivering up to a ton or more of a bomb load at a distance of 300-350 km (Fridrichshafen G-IV, Gotha G-V in Germany), (Handley Page H-12, Handley Page H-15 in England), (Ilya Muromets in Russia), (Martin MB in the USA). True, during the First World War, practically not a single air raid was carried out on enemy deep rear targets, except for several bombing attacks carried out by German airships. But the accumulated experience of using aviation to attack enemy ground troops at the forefront and near military rears, the trend in the development of aviation (increasing the flight range, speed, carrying capacity, developing aircraft armament) made it possible to create theories of aviation wars, the founders of which proved that in such wars practically only aviation forces can suppress enemy resistance, cause irreparable damage to the enemy's economy and demoralize the population. But the authors of these theories did not take into account the combat capabilities of the developing air defense systems built on the use of modern fighter aircraft, anti-aircraft artillery, early detection of attacking enemy aircraft, communications and control. The development of air defense made it possible to maneuver even with limited forces, providing local countermeasures in defensive means.

Understanding this led to the fact that in countries with a developed scientific and technical base (USA, USSR, Germany), the idea arose of creating combat aircraft- robots that combine the capabilities of aircraft in reaching remote targets with a significant payload on board with an increase in the reliability of the task at a comparable cost of material resources for the creation and production of these devices, either through their mass use in a relatively cheap version, or by increasing their invulnerability when flying along such trajectories and at such a speed, which made them inaccessible to air defense systems of that time. The German scientists and engineers achieved the greatest success in implementing this idea. To a large extent, this was due to the fact that in the European countries - the winners in the First World War (England, France, Italy), in the USA and the USSR, great influence was given to the development of military aviation that justified itself. And in Germany, the Versailles Peace Treaty forbade the possession and development of such aircraft, and the forces of scientists were directed to the creation of unconventional means of attack, a tool for suppressing rear targets, which were not subject to the restrictions of the peace treaty. The V-1 (FZG-76) unmanned cruise missile and the V-2 (A4) ballistic missile turned out to be such an instrument.

In Germany, which largely retained its scientific and technical potential, and in the mid-30s received economic opportunities for creating new weapons systems, it was possible to create a much more powerful and more efficient unmanned ballistic vehicle than in other countries and design ground equipment units, organize his mass production, as well as the production of ground equipment units, to test the entire combat missile system, to find, create and test the organizational and operational principles of application.

The creation of unmanned aerial vehicles such as V-1 projectiles and V-2 guided ballistic missiles and the use of experience in their operation and combat use has sharply intensified work on similar warfare systems being conducted in various countries of the world, especially in the USSR and the USA.

It was the installation of a control system on board a ballistic missile that made it possible to increase the accuracy of firing a missile at small targets and make it competitive in terms of efficiency with any missile system.

In the Soviet Union in March 1946, at the first post-war session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, among other primary tasks for the development of the country, the task of ensuring work on the development of jet technology was called. In 1946, by the Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR, a decision was made to create new and develop existing research, development and testing organizations, whose activities should be aimed at creating missiles of various classes and purposes, primarily long-range ballistic missiles, ground equipment providing their preparation, launch, flight control and measurement of flight parameters.

In the early 1950s, the Soviet Union reached the forefront in the development and use of powerful missiles. In 1957, this allowed mankind to take the first step in the practical exploration of outer space - to launch an artificial satellite of the Earth, and then in 1961 the first cosmonaut.

With the further development of rocket technology, its creators solved two problems:

Improving missiles as a means of armed struggle, increasing their invulnerability from enemy influence and increasing the combat power of missiles. The solution to this problem has always been associated with the desire to reduce the dimensions of the rocket while maintaining or even increasing the power of the warhead and its effectiveness. This, in turn, would make it possible either to increase the protective properties of silo launchers, the increase in the size of which was not allowed by international agreements, or to create movable missile systems different types. As a rule, rockets that meet these requirements are made of solid fuel;

Increasing the capabilities of rockets as a tool for the exploration of near and far space. And on this path, in the initial period, there were constantly observed tendencies towards an increase in the size of rockets, since the tasks that were and are being set for rocket technology require the possibility of launching heavier objects.

At the first stage of this development, almost all the tasks of space exploration were solved by using combat missiles and their stages as a means of launching space objects. In the future, special carriers of space vehicles were created to solve the problems of space exploration.

Medium and heavy missiles, which were used for this purpose, are mainly equipped with liquid propellant rocket engines. And at present, only a very small part of space exploration tasks can be solved by using the stages of modern combat missiles (dual technology missiles). That is, a certain differentiation of combat missiles and missiles - carriers of space objects is increasingly traced.

1.2. The theory of bodies of variable mass is the foundation of astronautics.

Development of astronautics and practical rocketry.

At the heart of the theory and practice of using rockets are the basic provisions of the mechanics of bodies of variable mass. The mechanics of bodies of variable mass is the science of the 20th century. Modern rocketry presents more and more new problems for this comparatively recent branch of theoretical mechanics.

Rockets of various types, rockets, torpedoes have now been mastered by the industry of almost all countries of the world. All rockets are bodies, the mass of which changes significantly during movement. In general, cases of the motion of bodies, the mass of which changes with time, can be seen in many natural phenomena. For example, the mass of a falling meteorite moving in the atmosphere decreases due to the fact that meteorite particles come off due to air resistance or burn out.

The basic law of the dynamics of a variable mass point was discovered by a Russian scientist, professor of the St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute I. V. Meshchersky in 1897. It is shown that there are two factors that distinguish the equations of motion of a point of variable mass from Newton's equations: the variability of the mass and the hypothesis of separation of particles, which determine the additional or reactive force that creates the motion of the point.

The law of motion of a point of variable mass states: "For any moment of time, the product of the mass of the radiating center and its acceleration is equal to the geometric sum of the resultant of the external forces applied to it and the reactive force."

d(m×V)/dt = F + R

The basic equation of motion of a point of variable mass obtained by IV Meshchersky made it possible to establish quantitative patterns for various problems. One of the essential hypotheses underlying Meshchersky's method is the hypothesis of short-range action (contact action of the body and the ejected particles). It is assumed that at the moment of separation of the particle from the body, a phenomenon similar to an impact occurs, the particle acquires a relative velocity V 2 in a very short period of time, and further interaction between the particle and the main body stops.

An important contribution to the mechanics of variable mass was made by the Russian scientist K. E. Tsiolkovsky. In 1903, he published the work "Investigation of world spaces with rocket instruments", in which he studied in detail a number of interesting cases of rectilinear motion of bodies of variable mass (rockets). The simplest task, solved in the study by Tsiolkovsky, concerns the very principle of jet propulsion. Studying the motion of a point in a medium without external forces, Tsiolkovsky showed that with a sufficiently high particle ejection velocity and a ratio of the initial mass of the point to the final mass, very large (cosmic) velocities can be obtained.

In the mechanics of bodies of variable mass, Tsiolkovsky came up with the idea of ​​studying such motions of a point of variable mass, when at some time intervals the mass of the point changes continuously, and at some moments of time - abruptly. This made it possible to construct the theory of multi-stage rockets.

Astronautics as a science, and then as a practical branch, was formed in the middle of the 20th century. But this was preceded by a fascinating story of the birth and development of the idea of ​​flight into space, which was initiated by fantasy, and only then did the first theoretical work and experiments appear. So, initially, in human dreams, flight into space was carried out with the help of fabulous means or forces of nature (tornadoes, hurricanes). Closer to the 20th century, for these purposes, in the descriptions of science fiction writers, there were already technical means – Balloons, heavy duty guns and finally rocket engines and the rockets themselves. More than one generation of young romantics grew up on the works of J. Verne, G. Wells, A. Tolstoy, A. Kazantsev, the basis of which was the description of space travel.

Everything stated by science fiction writers excited the minds of scientists. So K. E. Tsiolkovsky said: “At first, a thought, a fantasy, a fairy tale inevitably come, and an exact calculation marches behind them.”

Publication at the beginning of the 20th century of the theoretical works of the pioneers of cosmonautics K. E. Tsiolkovsky, F. A. Zander, Yu. V. Kondratyuk p. 8, R. Kh. 2 page 174 fig. 9, G. Ganswindt, R. Eno Peltri, G. Oberth vol. 2 p. 175, V. Gomana to some extent organized a flight of fancy, but at the same time brought to life new directions in science - there were attempts to determine what astronautics can give to society and how it affects it.

One of the pioneers of rocket space technology Robert Einaut Pelterie is a French scientist, engineer and inventor.

He came to astronautics after his passion for aviation technology. One of the first who drew attention to the possibility of using atomic energy in space technology.

In 1912-1913, Robert Goddard (Goddard) in the United States developed the theory of rocket propulsion. goddard brought out differential equation rocket movement and developed an approximate method for solving it, determined the minimum launch mass for lifting one pound of payload to different heights, and obtained the value of the rocket efficiency. They showed the possibility of launching a multi-stage rocket and determined the benefits of its use. Since 1915, he was engaged in bench experiments with solid-fuel rockets. In 1920, Goddard's fundamental work, The Method of Reaching the Ultimate Heights, was published in Washington. This work is one of the classics in the history of rocket and space technology.

In 1921, Goddard began to conduct experimental studies with liquid propellant rocket engines, using liquid oxygen as an oxidizer and hydrocarbons as a fuel. The first launch of the rocket engine at the stand took place in March 1922. For the first time, a successful flight of a rocket with a liquid-propellant rocket engine created by Goddard occurred on March 16, 1926, issue. 2 page 189 fig. 26, a 4.2 kg rocket reached a height of 12.5 m and flew 56 m.

I must say that the ideas to connect the cosmic and terrestrial direction human activity belongs to the founder of theoretical astronautics K. E. Tsiolkovsky. When the scientist said: “The planet is the cradle of the mind, but you can’t live forever in the cradle,” he did not put forward an alternative - either the Earth or space. Tsiolkovsky never considered going into space a consequence of some kind of hopelessness of life on Earth. On the contrary, he spoke about the rational transformation of the nature of our planet by the power of reason. People, the scientist argued, “will change the surface of the Earth, its oceans, atmosphere, plants and themselves. They will manage the climate and will dispose within the limits solar system, as well as on the Earth itself, which for an indefinitely long time will remain a dwelling place for mankind.

A talented researcher Yu. V. Kondratyuk worked in the field of theoretical development of issues of astronautics and interplanetary travel, who, independently of K. E. Tsiolkovsky, in his works “To those who will read in order to build” (1919) and “the conquest of interplanetary spaces” (1929) obtained the basic equations of rocket motion. In a number of provisions considered in his works, the main provisions set forth in the works of Tsiolkovsky were supplemented. For example, Kondratyuk proposed during flights to the Moon to launch a space system into the orbit of an artificial satellite, and then a take-off and landing vehicle and direct it to the Moon. The energy efficiency of such launch of the payload directed to the Moon is shown.

F. A. Zander was another prominent representative of the national school of astronautics. The book Problems of Flight with the Help of Jet Vehicles, published in 1932, collected materials on rocket designs, the theory of rocket flight, and proposals for using certain metals and alloys as fuels for rocket engines.

In 1921, on the initiative and under the leadership of N.I. Tikhomirov, as part of the Military Research Committee under the Revolutionary Military Council of the RSFSR, the Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL) was created, which was engaged in the development of rockets on ballistic gunpowder. On the basis of these developments, multiple rocket launchers were created, successfully tested and adopted by the Red Army, which played a significant role in the battles at Khalkhin Gol and in the Great Patriotic War.

In May 1929, at the GDL, on the initiative of V.P. Glushko, a department was created in which in 1930-31 liquid-propellant jet engines ORM-1 and ORM-2 (experimental jet engines) were developed.

Quad nitrogen oxide (oxidizer) and toluene or a mixture of gasoline and toluene (fuel) were used as fuel components in engines. The engines developed thrust up to 20 kg. Based on the test results in 1931-32, a series of liquid-propellant rocket engines up to ORM-52 with a thrust of 250-300 kg was created and tested.

In 1931, groups for the study of jet propulsion (Mos GIRD and Leningrad) were created in Moscow and Leningrad under Osoviahim, which voluntary brought together rocket science enthusiasts.

F. A. Tsander, S. P. Korolev, Yu. A. Pobedonostsev, M. K. Tikhonravov, and others worked at Mos GIRD.

In Mos GIRD, under the leadership of S.P. Korolev, the first rocket GIRD-09 was created according to the project of Tikhonravov M.K. 2. The rocket was tested in August 1933. In November of the same year, under the leadership of S. P. Korolev, the GIRD-X rocket was created, operating on liquid fuel alcohol and liquid oxygen. The rocket engine developed thrust up to 65 kg. The rocket was designed by F.A. Zander.

In 1933, on the basis of the GDL and Mos GIRD, the Reactive Research Institute of the Red Army (RNII RKKA) was created in the system of the People's Commissariat of Defense, which was transferred to industry a few months later. In the Institute in 1934-38, a number of LREs were created (from ORM-53 to ORM-102), and ORM-65, created in 1936, developed thrust up to 175 kg and was the most advanced engine of that time.

In 1939, on the initiative of V.P. Glushko and under his leadership, an experimental design bureau for liquid rocket engines (OKB-GDL) was created, where in the forties a family of aviation liquid-propellant rocket engines was developed, which served as prototypes in the development of powerful rocket engines.

In the USSR immediately after World War II practical work in space programs are associated with the names of S. P. Korolev and M. K. Tikhonravov. At the beginning of 1945, M. K. Tikhonravov organized a group of specialists from the RNII to develop a project for a manned high-altitude rocket vehicle (a cabin with two cosmonauts) to study the upper atmosphere. It was decided to create the project on the basis of a single-stage liquid-propellant rocket designed for vertical flight to an altitude of up to 200 km (project VR-190). The project included the solution of the following tasks:

Investigation of weightlessness conditions during a short-term flight of a person in a pressurized cabin;

Studying the movement of the cockpit center of mass and its movement around the center of mass after separation from the launch vehicle;

Obtaining data on the upper layers of the atmosphere;

Checking the performance of systems (separation, descent, stabilization, landing, etc.) included in the design of the high-altitude cabin.

In the VR-190 project, for the first time, solutions were proposed that were used in modern spacecraft:

Parachute descent system, braking rocket engine for soft landing, separation system using pyrobolts;

Electrocontact rod for predictive ignition of the soft landing engine, non-ejection pressurized cabin with a life support system;

Cabin stabilization system outside the dense layers of the atmosphere using low-thrust nozzles.

In general, the BP-190 project was a complex of new technical solutions and concepts, confirmed by the development of domestic and foreign rocket and space technology. In 1946, the materials of the VR-190 project were reported to I.V. Stalin by Tikhonravov. Since 1947, Tikhonravov and his group have been working on the idea of ​​rocket flight, and in the late forties and early fifties, he shows the possibility of obtaining the first space velocity and launching satellites using a missile base being developed in the USSR. In 1950-53, the efforts of the members of the group of M. K. Tikhonravov were directed to studying the problem of creating composite rockets and satellites.

In a report to the Government in 1954 on the possibility of developing an artificial satellite, S.P. Korolev wrote: “At your instruction, I submit a memorandum from Comrade. Tikhonravova M. K. "On an artificial satellite of the Earth."". In the report on scientific activity For 1954, S.P. Korolev noted: “We would consider it possible to make a preliminary development of the project of the satellite itself, taking into account the ongoing work (the work of M.K. Tikhonravov is especially noteworthy).”

Work began on preparing the launch of the first satellite PS-1. The first Council of Chief Designers headed by S.P. Korolev was created, which later carried out the management of the space program of the USSR, which became a leader in space exploration. Created under the leadership of S.P. Korolev, OKB-1-TsKBEM-NPO Energia became the center of space science and industry in the USSR since the early 1950s. Cosmonautics is unique in that much of what was predicted first by science fiction writers and then by scientists has come true with cosmic speed. Just over 40 years have passed since the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, October 4, 1957, p. 37 fig. 8, and the history of cosmonautics already contains a series of remarkable achievements, obtained initially by the USSR and the USA, and then by other space powers.

Already many thousands of satellites are flying in orbits around the Earth, vehicles have reached the Moon, Venus, Mars; scientific equipment was sent to Jupiter, Mercury, Saturn to obtain knowledge about these remote planets of the solar system.

Since the launch of the first cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin on the spacecraft "Vostok", after the launches of the spacecraft p. 9 "Salyut", "Mir", the USSR became for a long time the leading country in the world in manned cosmonautics. Large-scale space systems for a wide range of tasks (including socio-economic and scientific ones), integration space industries various countries.

The first powerful liquid-propellant rocket engines (created under the leadership of Glushko V.P.), the implementation of new scientific ideas and schemes that practically eliminated the losses on the drive of the TPU pushed the Russian engine building to the forefront of space technology. Development of thermo-hydrodynamics, theory of heat transfer and strength, metallurgy of materials, chemistry of fuels, measuring equipment, vacuum and plasma technology.

Design of complex space systems, spaceport construction, high-precision and reliable control systems for remote meteorological facilities, satellite geodesy, creation of an information space.

There is a fight against space pollution.

The effectiveness of means of armed struggle increases 1.5-2 times.

In the 1920s, practical work was carried out in Germany on the creation of a liquid-propellant rocket engine and projects for ballistic missiles were developed. The work was attended by prominent German scientists and engineers G. Oberth, R. Nebel, V. Riedel, K. Riedel. Hermann Oberth worked on rockets. Back in 1917, he created a project for a liquid-fueled combat rocket (alcohol and liquid oxygen), which should carry a warhead at a range of several hundred kilometers. In 1923 Oberth wrote his thesis "Rocket in interplanetary space". Further development G. Oberth's ideas were received in the book "Ways for Space Flight" (1929), which considered, in particular, the possibility of using the energy of solar radiation during interplanetary flights.

In 1957, Oberth's book "People in Space" was published, where he again returns to using the energy of the sun's radiation with the help of mirrors deployed in space.

Oberth developed several projects for space rockets with rocket engines, offering alcohol, hydrocarbons, liquid hydrogen as a fuel, and liquid oxygen as an oxidizer.

R. Nebel worked on a project of a rocket launched from an aircraft at ground targets.

V. Riedel conducted experimental studies of rocket engines. In 1927 Breslau was established. Society for Interplanetary Communications, whose members created and tested a rocket cart in Rousselchem.

In the late 1920s, in order to carry out experimental work aimed at creating rockets with liquid-propellant rocket engines, a group for the study of liquid-propellant rocket engines was created under the leadership of V. Dornberger at the department of ballistics and ammunition of the armament control of the racer. In 1932, in Künelsdorf, near Berlin, in a specially organized experimental laboratory, the development of a rocket engine for ballistic missiles began.

In this laboratory, Wirner von Braun becomes the leading designer. In 1933, a group of engineers led by Dornberger and Brown designed a ballistic missile with an A-1 rocket engine with a launch weight of 150 kg, a length of 1.4 m, a diameter of 0.3 m. The engine developed a thrust of 295 kg. Although the design was unsuccessful, but its improved version of the A-2, created on the basis of the A-1, was successfully launched in December 1934 on the island of Borkum (North Sea). The rocket reached a height of 2.2 km.

In 1936, with the full support of the Reichswehr command, the Dorberger-Brown group began to develop a ballistic missile with an estimated range of 275 km and a warhead weight of 1 ton. At the same time, a decision was made to build the island of Usedom in the Baltic Sea of ​​the Peenemünde Research Rocket Center, consisting of two parts. Peenemünde-West for testing new types of weapons of the Air Force and Peenemünde-Ost, where work was carried out, on a rocket for the ground forces.

After unsuccessful launches of the A-3 rocket, work began on the A-4 rocket with a rocket engine, which had the following performance characteristics: launch weight 12 tons, length 14 m, body diameter 1.6 m, stabilizer span 3.5 m, engine thrust Earth 25 tons, flight range about 300 km. The circular deviation of the rocket should be within 0.002 - 0.003 km. The head part had an explosive charge equal to 1 ton.

The first experimental launch of the A-4 rocket took place on June 13, 1942 and ended in failure, the rocket fell 1.5 minutes after the launch on October 3, 1942, the rocket flew 190 km, reached a height of 96 km and deviated from the calculated fall point by 4 km.

Between September 1944 and March 1945, the command of the German armed forces sent about 5.8 thousand V-2 missiles to combat missile units. Almost 1.5 thousand missiles did not reach the launchers. About 4.3 thousand missiles were launched towards England and Belgium. Of these, 15% reached the goal. Such a low percentage of successful launches is due to the design flaws of the V-2. However, experience was gained in the use of long-range missile weapons, which was immediately used in the USA and the USSR.

1.3. Formation of the market of space services and development of RCT at the present stage

If in the first period of the rapid development of rocket technology, the solution of problems in space was carried out at any cost, a new, usually more advanced rocket was developed to solve each new problem, then already at the end of the 60s the question of economic efficiency rocket technology.

As its practical effectiveness grows, so does its return in various spheres of human activity in space. In advanced countries, interest in using its results began to appear in most countries of the world. The question arose about using on lease the launch vehicles and spacecraft of countries that have this equipment, or about creating and developing their own space technologies. The first path led to the creation of a market for space services. However, due to the high cost of leasing space communication lines, meteorological, navigation and other space systems, in many countries the question of creating own funds withdrawal and KO.

But often own resources even some large states did not have enough for these purposes, therefore, international space associations began to be created to implement large space projects, for example, the European Space Agency and a number of others.

Since the end of the seventies, the space services market has been a device and an intensively developing sector of the world economic system. This is due to the growing demand for services that are provided in commercial basis using rocket and space systems: telecommunications, products and services for remote sensing of the Earth's surface, launching aircraft into space, geodetic and navigation services, etc. In addition, political changes have led to a weakening state regulation in the development of private initiative in the field of space activities. As a result of the creation of promising technologies and the development of launch vehicles and spacecraft, new opportunities have opened up in space exploration on a commercial basis.

A Brief History of Rockets

The general principle of jet flight, which formed the basis of all rockets, is simple - some part is separated from the body, setting everything else in motion.

Who was the first to implement this principle is unknown, but various conjectures and conjectures bring the genealogy of rocket science right up to Archimedes. It is known for certain about the first such inventions that they were actively used by the Chinese, who charged them with gunpowder and launched them into the sky due to the explosion. Thus they created the first solid fuel rockets. Great interest in missiles appeared among European governments at the beginning

Second rocket boom

Rockets waited in the wings and waited: in the 1920s, the second rocket boom began, and it is associated primarily with two names.

Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky, a self-taught scientist from the Ryazan province, despite the difficulties and obstacles, he himself reached many discoveries, without which it would be impossible even to talk about space. The idea of ​​using liquid fuel, Tsiolkovsky's formula, which calculates the speed required for flight, based on the ratio of the final and initial masses, a multi-stage rocket - all this is his merit. In many respects, under the influence of his works, domestic rocket science was created and formalized. Societies and circles for the study of jet propulsion began to spontaneously arise in the Soviet Union, including the GIRD - a group for the study of jet propulsion, and in 1933, under the patronage of the authorities, the Jet Institute appeared.

Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky.
Source: wikimedia.org

The second hero of the rocket race is the German physicist Wernher von Braun. Brown had an excellent education and a lively mind, and after meeting another luminary of world rocket science, Heinrich Oberth, he decided to put all his efforts into the creation and improvement of rockets. During the Second World War, von Braun actually became the father of the "retribution weapon" of the Reich - the V-2 rocket, which the Germans began to use on the battlefield in 1944. The "winged horror", as it was called in the press, brought destruction to many English cities, but, fortunately, at that time the collapse of Nazism was already a matter of time. Wernher von Braun, together with his brother, decided to surrender to the Americans, and, as history has shown, this was a lucky ticket not only and not so much for scientists, but for the Americans themselves. Since 1955, Brown has been working for the US government, and his inventions form the basis of the US space program.

But back to the 1930s. The Soviet government appreciated the zeal of enthusiasts on the path to outer space and decided to use it in their own interests. During the war years, Katyusha showed itself perfectly - a multiple launch rocket system that fired rockets. It was in many ways an innovative weapon: the Katyusha, based on the Studebaker light truck, arrived, turned around, fired at the sector and left, not letting the Germans come to their senses.

The end of the war gave our leadership a new task: the Americans demonstrated to the world the full power of a nuclear bomb, and it became quite obvious that only those who have something similar can claim the status of a superpower. But here was the problem. The fact is that, in addition to the bomb itself, we needed delivery vehicles that could bypass US air defenses. Planes were not suitable for this. And the USSR decided to bet on missiles.

Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky died in 1935, but he was replaced by a whole generation of young scientists who sent a man into space. Among these scientists was Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, who was destined to become the "trump card" of the Soviets in the space race.

The USSR set about creating its own intercontinental rocket with all diligence: institutes were organized, the best scientists were gathered, a research institute for missile weapons and work is in full swing.

Only the colossal exertion of forces, means and minds allowed the Soviet Union to as soon as possible build their own rocket, which they called R-7. It was her modifications that launched Sputnik and Yuri Gagarin into space, it was Sergei Korolev and his associates who launched the space age of mankind. But what does a space rocket consist of?