Memoirs are testimonies of participants or eyewitnesses of any historical event, compiled on the basis of personal impressions. Reproducing the most important aspects of reality, the memoirist seeks to determine his place in what happened, to assess historical events. This makes memoirs a valuable source for studying the psychological aspects of the development of society, determining the connection between events taking place in the past, for deciphering incomplete, inaccurate or deliberately distorted information from other historical sources. Memoirs serve as an additional source of factual material on topics. They are usually created after a long period of time and contain a retrospective, preconceived view of the events described. Depending on the object of recollection, they are a biography of the author, a remembrance of a separate event, a historical figure, etc.
A feature of memoir literature is their documentary nature, which is based on the testimonies of memoirists, eyewitnesses of the events described. Memoirs are not only a fixation of the events of the past, they are a confession, an excuse, an accusation, and thoughts of a person. Of course, memoirs are subjective, since they bear the imprint of the author's personality. Memoirs are not alien to the brilliance of prose, the partiality of journalism, and validity. Therefore, the lines that separate memoir literature from fiction, journalism, and even scientific research are far from always distinguishable.
The nature of the content of the memoir heritage is associated with the personality of the author, the depth of his intention and also depends on the significance of the events described. If the author is a historically significant person, he himself is especially interesting, his views and ideas, his attitude to the events of which he was an eyewitness. At the same time, memoirs cannot be considered a product of exclusively personal origin. They inevitably bear the stamp of their time. The sincerity of the memoirist, the completeness and reliability of his impressions depend on the era in which the memoirs were written and published. Of no small importance is the object of memories: the event or person about which the memoirist writes. A memoirist often first of all wants to show his role in this event, to emphasize his significance in the events described, of which he was a contemporary.
The sources of memoir literature itself can be written and oral. Written documents are a wide variety of documents: operational documents of military headquarters, excerpts from letters and diaries, newspaper reports, fragments of departmental documentation, etc. Oral sources are also involved in writing memoirs. It happens that the stories of other people are the only channels of knowledge about a particular fact. In this regard, memory remains the most important source of memoirs. Here, much depends on the reliability of the memory of the memoirist, and on his ability to accurately convey information about events to the reader. At the same time, the time distance makes it possible to more calmly assess the past, to take an objective look at one's own person, to place accents in a more balanced way, to single out the main thing from the particular, etc. One of effective methods verification of the completeness and reliability of memoirs is their comparison with other sources Chernomorsky M.N. Memoirs as a historical source. - M., 1959. - S. 395 ..
A feature of memoir literature is the correspondence to historical events, the chronological sequence of the narration, the use of artistic techniques. They presuppose an appeal to the distant past, a reassessment of current events from the height of the experience accumulated by the memoirist. In terms of relative reliability, lack of fiction, memoirs are close to historical prose, scientific biographical, autobiographical and documentary historical essays. At the same time, memoirs are distinguished from autobiography by their focus on reflecting not only the author's personality, but also the historical reality in which he was involved. - M., 1982. - S. 65 .. Unlike the scientific genre, memoir literature involves a personal assessment of events. In this regard, in terms of actual accuracy, the reproduction of the material is often inferior to the document. Researchers are forced to subject events from the memoirs of socio-political and cultural figures to critical analysis with the information available in other documentary sources Cardin V. Today about yesterday. Memoirs and Modernity. - M., 1961. - P.45 .. Memoir literature reflects not only social events, life individual people but also the motives, goals of their activities, personal experiences. Due to this feature, historians attribute memoir literature to the group of the most complex, multifaceted sources that cannot be replaced by either documentary sources or historical and literary worksPavlovskaya S.V. Memoirs and diaries of Russian historians as a historical source for studying the socio-political and scientific-pedagogical life of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. // Abstract of diss. cand. ist. Sciences. - Nizhny Novgorod, 2006. .
The problem of classification of memoir heritage in the historical literature is debatable. Researcher S. Gelis proposes to divide memoirs into categories depending on the role, place and specific gravity the author of the memoirs in the events described. According to this principle, the researcher divides the memoirs into memoirs of the organizer, memoirs of the participant, memoirs of a witness, memoirs of an eyewitness, memoirs of a contemporaryGelis S. How to write memoirs (Methodological essay) // Proletarian revolution. .
Scientist M.N. Chernomorsky distinguishes four varieties of memoir sources: full biographies - memories covering a long period of time; memories covering a certain period of time; memories of individual events; diaries; literary recordsChernomorsky M.N. Memoirs as a historical source. Textbook on source studies of the history of the USSR. - M., 1959 - S. 74 ..
Researcher L.G. Zakharova proposed the division of memoirs according to the type of activity as a basis: memoirs and diaries of statesmen, memoirs of public figures, memoirs of landowners and commercial and industrial figures, memoirs of scientists and cultural figures, memoirs of clerics, memoirs of military leaders Zakharov L.G. Memoirs, diaries, private correspondence of the second half of the 19th century // Source study of the history of the USSR. / ed. I.A. Fedosova.- M., 1970.- S. 369-370..
L.I. Derevnina proposes to base the classification on the principle of differences in the author's individuality and position. From this point of view, the researcher considers memories as the author's consideration of the past from the standpoint of the present; diaries - the author's consideration of the past from positions characteristic of the author in this very past. On this basis, L.I. Derevnina distinguishes the following groups of memoirs: memoirs, diaries, transcripts and literary record Derevnina L.I. On the term "memoirs" and the classification of memoir sources (historiography of the issue) // Questions of archiving. - 1963. - No. 4. - P.45..
S.S. Mintz offers an unconventional way of grouping memoir sources. The basis for grouping sources of this type, she proposes to accept the subjective nature of memoirs, reflecting objectively existing various levels individual's awareness of interpersonal and public relations Mints S.S. On the peculiarities of the evolution of memoir sources (to the formulation of the problem // History of the USSR.-1979.- No. 2.- P. 69-70 .. Such a grouping, from her point of view, looks like this:
Sources reflecting the initial stage of the objective process of understanding the social significance of the individual: the isolation of the individual from the social environment surrounding him (egocentric sources, often opposing the individual to the described society);
Sources reflecting the individual's weak awareness of the mechanism of social relations: the degree of awareness of the participation of memoir authors in interpersonal relations does not rise above defending, sometimes unconsciously, the interests of a small corporately closed group to which the memoirist belongs;
Sources reflecting the degree of awareness of their authors interpersonal relationships: self-consciousness of the individual rises to the level of conscious acceptance of the interests of a certain class;
Sources reflecting the highest degree of mastering the mechanisms of social relations by an individual: the self-consciousness of the individual is inseparable from the awareness of the public interests and needs of society as a whole.
The author stipulates that when using such a grouping when conducting a specific historical study, it is impossible to do without observing the principle of historicism, since the role of a separate link is manifested in its entirety only taking into account the characteristics of the historical era. The difference and advantages of its classification by S.S. Mints sees that it is based not on a formal, but on a qualitative sign that characterizes the inner essence of memoir sources Sheretov S.G. Problems of classification of memoir sources in Soviet historiography of source studies. // Bulletin of the University of Kainar, 2002. - No. 2. - P.54. .
In addition, the following classifications of memoir literature are common among researchers: about events described in memoirs according to the thematic and chronological principle (for example, about the October Revolution and the Civil War, about the Great Patriotic War, etc.); by personalities (for example, memories of V.I. Lenin, etc.); classify by origin (i.e. who wrote the memoirs) (for example, memoirs of statesmen, memoirs of literary and artistic figures, military memoirs, etc.); memoirs according to the method and form of reproduction (for example, memoirs proper, literary record, interviews, diaries). The nature of the memoirs, the degree of their reliability, completeness, concealment of information, understatement are strongly influenced by the era in which the memoirs were created. Therefore, it is legitimate to classify memoir literature according to the chronological principle: memoirs written in the 1920s; memoirs of the 30s - early 50s; memoirs of the "thaw" period of the 60s; memoirs of the 60-80s, etc. Derevnina P.I. On the term "memoirs" and the classification of memoir sources // Issues of archiving. - 1963. - No. 4. - S. 125.
It should be noted that diaries closely adjoin memoirs - a set of daily or periodic fragmentary notes of the author, setting out the events of his personal life against the backdrop of events of contemporary historical reality. The diary is the primary form of memoir literature, which is devoid of an event narrative. Diaries differ from memoirs in that the entries in them are recorded immediately after an event.
Diaries can be divided into two categories: diary entries, simply stating the sequence of events, the author's attitude towards them. Such entries can sometimes be hasty, the author does not care about the form of presentation in them. The second category of records is a peculiar form of artistic creation. Such records are characterized by careful study of the text. This is not about artistic delights, but about a particularly high form of poetic comprehension of reality by a creative person and a truthful, accurate, expressive reproduction of his perception of the world.
Memoirs and notes are a special, yet more complex form of memoir literature. Memories are not only a dispassionate fixation of the events of the past, they are a confession, an excuse, an accusation, and thoughts of a person. Therefore memories are subjective. In his memoirs, the author describes a large period of time, analyzes events from the angle of a certain concept. Memories are devoid of randomly described events.
A special form of memoirs is an autobiography. This is a form of biography where the main character is the author. The autobiography is written in the first person and covers most of his life. An autobiography is not just introspection, it requires a certain narrative form. This short description important turning points in the history of personality. When evaluating autobiographical records, it should be borne in mind that these records are often compiled with the explicit purpose of self-justification, self-defense of their author. It should be noted that memoirs are not identical to autobiographies. The memoirist tries to comprehend historical events through the prism of his own consciousness, to describe his actions as part of a common process, and in autobiography the emphasis is on the inner life of a person. When using memoirs as historical sources, there is always the question of how much you can trust what is written in them. The comparison method allows to identify some inaccuracies. An important role in confirming or refuting the facts stated in the memoirs belongs to the reference literature related to the time reproduced on the pages of the memoirs.
Researcher Grebenyuk O.S. notes that the genre of autobiography is widespread when writing scientific research. He distinguishes two kinds of autobiographies: the first is a brief and formal official autobiography, dryly listing the facts of life, and the second is an autobiography as an individual's desire to comprehend his life path and their mental and spiritual self-development. These are detailed artistic and philosophical-reflexive texts. Biographies of this kind expose not only the process of self-conversion, but also the very process of its constitution as a holistic experience. Although an autobiography aims to create an image of oneself as a result of reflective experience, this image is always created taking into account who will read the autobiographical text. In autobiographies, literary form can conflict with content: self-condemnation can turn into narcissism. This is not surprising, since the author of his own biography is almost always a “positive hero”, he treats his own life biasedly, and it is difficult for him to maintain objectivity. The extended autobiographical text does not just list the events of the author's life, but contains a series of assessments that replace each other. On the one hand, the author wants to see the integrity of himself, to understand himself in the context of self-fulfillment, on the other hand, he changes his assessments of himself, moving from describing one stage of life to to another. This creates tension and openness of the autobiography. The author of an autobiography acts simultaneously in two persons: on the one hand, he is an active, thinking, remembering, text-creating subject; on the other hand, he is the object of description, therefore, in memories, he can go from the first to the third person, when a person calls himself by name and gives himself distant characteristics Grebenyuk O.S. Autobiography: philosophical and cultural analysis. / Abstract. diss. cand. philosophy Sciences. - Rostov-on-Don, 2005..
Letters are a unique, unlike any other type of historical source. They are of great value for historical research. In source studies, they can be viewed in several ways: as a newspaper genre; as a kind of business documents; Letters to well-known political figures, writers, artists, etc. have an independent significance; as a kind of epistolary genre.
For the convenience of characterizing the letters, we will carry out a small classification of them: regular mail to newspapers, including letters published and stored in the archive of the newspaper. One can especially single out a subgroup of letters received in connection with some anniversary or significant event, discussion of some important document etc.: permanent mail to state and public institutions (complaints, claims, proposals, denunciations, etc.); letters to political, public figures, scientists, representatives of art; private correspondence is a residual phenomenon of the once very common epistolary genre V.V. Kabanov. Source study of the history of Soviet society / http://www.opentextnn.ru/history/istochnik/kabanov/?id=1376.
Diaries, memoirs, autobiographical works, letters, like any other historical source, can play both a major and a secondary role for the historian. This is largely determined by the choice of topic and aspect of the study. So, to work on the biography of historical personalities, to recreate political history, to study the level of development of science, culture, art, diaries and memoirs can be considered as the main source. If we are talking about the study of topics of specific historical events, processes or phenomena, then memoirs are usually used as additional source information Pavlovskaya S.V. Memoirs and diaries of Russian historians as a historical source for studying the socio-political and scientific-pedagogical life of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. // Abstract of diss. cand. ist. Sciences. - Nizhny Novgorod, 2006. .
Memoir literature can serve as historical material, documentary evidence, but, of course, only under the condition of critical verification and processing, which are usual for each historical source. The authenticity of the memoir, that is, its actual belonging to the author to whom it is attributed, must be subjected to an examination; its credibility. When deciding on the reliability of memoirs, one should take into account such features of the author of the memoirs as memory, attention, type of perception, nature and working conditions, then - the use of sources in the work, etc. Of course, the memoirist's memory errors, its stability depending on on the length of the time interval separating the moment of the commission or observation of an event from its recording, etc., are easily corrected and replenished by other sources and do not represent a decisive "factor" in the question of the reliability of memoirs.
Thus, memoirs are the most important historical source, containing information not only about specific events, but also reflecting the direction of social thought of a particular era. At the same time, memoir literature is subjective, the main source of which is the memory of the author.
Home > LiteratureDiary and memoir literature. Functional, genetic similarity and difference of genres.
The idea of memory as the basis of culture is now obvious and generally recognized. "The history of culture is the history of human memory, its deepening and improvement." “Memory active. It does not leave a person indifferent, inactive ... and owns the mind and heart of a person.” What the great scientist D. Likhachev said can also be applied to literature that materializes human memory in words. Memory is one of the results of the complex interaction of man with the outside world. It preserves the direct, individual perception of reality by a person. Imprinting the perception of historical facts, the human memory has the ability to reproduce these phenomena as they were observed or could be known by a participant or contemporary of these events. Thanks to memory, both extremely important historical facts and historical facts can be recorded in literature. the smallest details daily activities and the psychological state of a person and the people around him. In the multibranched chain of literary genres, genres occupy their rightful place. , whose functional purpose is serve as a direct conductor of memory, its direct expression. Such genres in literary criticism include the following memoir genres: memoirs (in the narrow sense of the word), notes, notebooks, autobiographies, obituaries, diaries . In determining the theoretical content of the diary genre, we proceed from the already existing concepts presented in our literary criticism. In domestic literary criticism, the issue of the content side of the diary genre is quite fully covered. Literary sources give different definitions of the genre, in some respects complementing each other. Let us turn to the definition in the pre-war edition of the Literary Encyclopedia, in which the concept of “diary genre” is considered from the point of view of its belonging to memoirs and as the most primitive form of memoir literature. " Diaryrepresents the primary form of memoir literature - there is no general perspective of events here ...Diary – daily or periodic records of the author, setting out the events of his personal life against the background of the events of contemporary reality (the latter, however, is not always necessary) ”[2]. This interpretation refers to the primacy of the diary as a genre of memoir literature in relation to memoirs, notes, autobiography, confessions, biographical memoirs, and even an obituary. In the "Literary Encyclopedia" attention is drawn to the possibility of depicting a social principle in the diary. Apparently, attention to the social is a tribute to the times, but we cannot get away from this in our study. In the "Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary" the Diary is considered as "... a form of first-person narrative that is told through everyday…dated notes. The diary as a non-literary genre is distinguished by the utmost sincerity, frankness of expression»[ 3, 98]. Another definition of the diary, which also complements the content of the term: “ Diary - a form of narration conducted in the first person in the form of everyday records ... such records ... are contemporary with the events described» . This definition touches upon the temporal aspect of the genre, its specificity, which consists in the absence of retrospection, which is important for understanding the genre. There are no serious discrepancies in the above definitions of the diary genre. Having considered the existing definitions and taking into account what has been done in the issue of the theory of the diary genre, we will try to determine which genres should be attributed primarily to memoir literature. There are different opinions in this regard in modern criticism. Researchers of memoir literature (V.S. Golubtsov, A. Tartakovsky, I.I. Podolskaya, V. Oskotsky), who devoted their work to the theory and history of the genre and considered problems on the material of memoirs of the 18–19 centuries. and the Soviet period disagree. Critics such as V.S. Golubtsov, A. Tartakovsky, I.I. Podolskaya come to the conclusion that diaries and memoirs are a typological act of memoir-making. Based on this, they refer them to a single memoir genre - these are "two groups (or types) of related works, united by the concept of" memoirs "- diaries as the historically primary and simplest form of capturing by a person the experience of his participation in historical life and memories(memoirs in the narrow sense of the word) as a more complex and developed form of memoir culture. Such a definition of the diary, in our opinion, narrows the meaning of the content of the genre and limits its possibilities only to the depiction of the historical, and not the personal. V.Oskotsky disagrees with this position. He believes that "the diaries ... do not belong to memoirs, although they are quite consistent with them ... But there are significant differences almost stronger than this ... similarity." He classifies letters and notebooks as memoir literature, since they are “also witnesses to memory fixed by the word, its support and bonds,” while he does not include diaries in this group of genres, although he points to their relationship with memoir literature. On this basis, V. Oscotsky draws the following conclusion: “it is more expedient to talk not about memoirs, but about memorial literature, not about the memoir genre, but about memorial genres." The researcher proposes the term "memorial genre" (from the English Memory) "in order to avoid the common denominator of memories, under which even that which is not a memory is tucked." Thus, according to V. Oscotsky, memorial literature should include notes, notebooks, letters, memoirs, diaries. Undoubtedly, the critic's opinion on the question of whether letters and notebooks belong to the literature of memoirs is interesting and justified, however, we believe that it may be more appropriate to adhere to the usual definition of the genre, and therefore in the future we will use the term "memoir genres". Thus, the question of whether diaries belong to memoir literature involves determining the similarities and differences between memoirs and diaries. The table below gives an idea of the specifics of the similarities and differences between the two genres:
| Memoir literature | Genre patterns of works |
||
| Reflection system is real -news | Narrative structure | The nature of communication |
|
diaries | Synchronous | Discrete records | communicative |
Memoirs (memoirs) | Retrospective | Plot-organizo bathroom story in memory | The sphere of auto communication activity limited. Communication- activity takes on an outward direction. |
- Likhachev D. The past - the future. L., 1985.
Memoir literature
Memoir literature 1. The scope and composition of the concept. 1. VOLUME AND COMPOSITION OF THE CONCEPT.- M. l. (from the French memoire - memory) - works of writing, fixing in one form or another the memories of their authors about the past. Approaching sometimes to fiction, in particular, for example. to such genres as the family family chronicle (see) and different kinds historical fiction, M. l. However, it differs from them in the desire for an accurate reproduction of a certain area of reality. Unlike fiction, works of memoir literature carry exclusively or predominantly cognitive functions without any special artistic installations. However, a clear line between them and fiction sometimes it is extremely difficult to carry out. Neither the “Diary of Kostya Ryabtsev” by Ognev, nor “Confessions d’un enfant du siecle” by Musset by the works of M. l. are not. But already in "David Copperfield" by Dickens, or especially in "The Family Chronicle" by S. Aksakov, we find a huge number of autobiographical realities, which form the basis of literary and artistic processing. Feedback is also quite possible here - in the monuments of M. l. may in one way or another there is a desire for artistic expressiveness. So, the memoirs of the Italian adventurer of the XVIII century. The Casanovas are not alien to the techniques of the gallant adventure novel of the Rococo era, and the memoirs of the Decembrist N. A. Bestuzhev are written in a clearly idealizing everyday manner, following the samples of the classical biographies of Plutarch. The combination of moments of "reliable" and "fiction" in a memoir is a great difficulty for a writer's biographer or researcher of his work (Goethe's "Dichtung und Warheit" is a classic example of this fusion). The proportion of the ratio of both elements can vary extremely strongly: the elements of fiction, almost completely dominant in Stern's "Sentimental Journey", fade into the background in Karamzin's "Letters of a Russian Traveler", a trimmed diary written by Karamzin during his trip to the West. Europe; this work stands at the turn of the artistic and M. l. The latter often turns out to be deeply fruitful for literature: for example, Furmanov's Chapaev, being an artistic generalization of a certain period and corner civil war, at the same time retains a greater degree of closeness to reality, which undoubtedly increases the tension of the reader's attention and contributes to the success of the work. 2. CLASS DETERMINATION OF MEMOIR GENRES.- In the literary criticism of the past, attempts were repeatedly made to establish common formal features M. l. These attempts were by no means successful. Features characteristic of memoirs of some epochs cease to be obligatory in other epochs; the production of some class groups is radically different from the works expressing a different class ideology, serving a different class practice. Lefovtsy cultivated M. l. for its "factuality" in contrast to fiction literature, supposedly based on "fiction". It is not difficult to discover the entire fictitiousness of this division: memoirs very often embellish reality, and depict it from a certain angle, and a direct distortion of facts. Smirnova's "Notes" do not cease to be a fact of M. l. from the fact that they contain a mass of unreliable and directly erroneous. 3. QUESTIONS OF RELIABILITY M. L.- The documentary form of M. l., the apparent "sophistication" of her narration does not, however, serve as a guarantee of her veracity. Memoirs experience the usual fate of testimonies, even in the absence of malicious distortion of reality; the class position of the author, his worldview affect both the choice of facts, their coverage, and the conclusions from these facts; orientation M. l. cannot fail to serve certain purposes of class practice. Even Tatishchev took this moment into account, determining the degree of reliability in the report of Count Matveev about the Streltsy rebellion: “Sylvester Medvedev, a monk of the Chudov Monastery, and Count Matveyev,” he says in his History of the Russian, “described the Streltsy rebellion, only in legends of passions very disagree and more disgusting, because Count Matveev's father was killed by archers, and Medvedev himself was a participant in that rebellion. The idea that M.'s studying of l does not demand the special proof. can be scientifically fruitful not only adjusted for the personal bias and direct interest of the authors (similar to those noted by Tatishchev), but above all, provided that the specific historical class purposefulness of the memoirs is disclosed, which fully preserves its important role in cases where the author acts as an "outsider". Memoirs, like any other literature of a class society, serve the purposes of ideological and political struggle with one class enemy or another. In this regard, the references of the book. Kurbsky on "reliable husbands" do not prevent us from perceiving his notes as a sharp political pamphlet in his struggle with Ivan the Terrible or, more broadly, in the struggle of one group of landowners against another, which seized power in the Muscovite state. 5. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MEMOIRS.- Memoirs, as a source of information about the life of a particular era, provide important material on the history of literary life. We know a number of notes devoted to literary life or reproducing the most interesting moments from the life of this or that artist of the word. These are eg. notes of the Goncourt brothers, George Sand, Chateaubriand and others. In Russian. We have an extensive literary library, which has significant historical and literary value. Here we must keep in mind, along with the notes of the artists themselves, words, such as, for example. Pushkin's diary, Fet's My Memoirs, etc., as well as the notes of those who, by the nature of their activities, had the opportunity to observe close-up literary life from its daily everyday side, little accessible to the general public. So, N. I. Grech, the author of Notes on My Life (2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1886, last - M., 1928), had the opportunity, as the editor of the Northern Bee, to provide a lot of information on the history of Russian art words and journalism (in particular - about the activities of censorship), although he often deliberately distorted them. A. V. Nikitenko (“My story about myself and what I was a witness to in life”) reveals many interesting episodes from the activities of the Censorship Committee, of which he was a long-term member. The memoirs of A. Panaeva (see), the ex-wife of I. I. Panaev, and then for 15 years Nekrasov's common-law wife, contains a lot of data not only about the personality and literary work of Nekrasov, but also about a whole galaxy of writers, with whom she had to meet or about whom she had heard from friends. 6. MAIN HISTORICAL MILESTONES M. L.- After all that has been said above, it is clear that to study the social nature of M. l. most conveniently on the material of specific memoir genres that have historically developed in a specific class style and have a certain ideological content. So, in the very fact of increased attraction to M. l. in general, the class orientation of literary formations can already have an effect. The inclination towards the individualistic type of memoirs on the part of A. Frans (“Little Pierre”, “The Book of My Friend”, etc.) cannot but be connected with the passivity and passeism of his work, and through this work - with a passive role, which The rue was more and more hopeless to be realized by the group of the middle bourgeoisie that put it forward, cut off from direct participation in production and in the economic struggle (see France). However, from the repeatedly observed fact - the double use of the same literary material - it is clear that even in its general form, interest in M. l. cannot be interpreted in isolation from the place it occupies in the concrete situation of the class struggle.
2. Class determinism of memoir genres.
3. Questions of reliability M. l.
4. Receptions of examination M. l.
5. The meaning of memoirs.
6. The main historical milestones of M. l.
Quite diverse genres of M. l. often intertwined. Primary and in in a certain sense the most primitive form of M. l. is a diary - daily or periodic entries of the author, setting out the events of his personal life against the background of the events of contemporary reality (the latter, however, is not always necessary). The diary is the primary form of M. l. - there is no general perspective of events here, and the narration rests on the molecular connection of the records, united by the unity of the person presenting them, the system of his views. An example of this type is the recently published "Diaries" by M. Shahinyan. Memories or notes are a more complex and frequent form of M. l. Here the author gets the opportunity of a perspective look back, covering a larger period of time and analyzing its events from the point of view of a certain ideological concept. There is less random in the memories, there are much more elements of selection, elimination of events in them. The third form can be considered an autobiography, which is shorter than memoirs in terms of its volume and covers the most important and turning points in the history of a person (memoirs can tell about reality in general, but for an autobiography it is necessary to find the person in the center of the story). An autobiography is often written for special reasons - for example. a writer reviewing his creative path (see the collection of autobiographies “Our First Literary Steps” by N. N. Fidler, “Writers About Myself”, edited by V. Lidin, etc.). An autobiography dedicated to some, especially turning points in the writer's life, is often also called a confession (cf., for example, L. Tolstoy's "Confession", written by him after the creative turning point of 1882, or Gogol's dying "Author's Confession"). This term, however, is not completely defined, and for example. Rousseau's "Confessions" are rather memories. If the center of gravity is transferred from the author to persons with whom he was somehow connected in the past, a form of biographical memories arises. These are eg. memoirs of N. Prokopovich about Gogol, Gorky about L. Tolstoy, which do not give an integral scientific biography, but provide valuable material for it. Finally, if the memoirs of a close person are written in connection with his death and under her direct impression, we have the form of an obituary.
It must be noted that this classification is schematic and does not in itself determine the genre essence of this or that literary work, although it brings us closer to the disclosure of this essence. Studying of forms M. of l. should be concrete: only then will typological analysis be saturated with concrete class content and give us a complete picture of the essence of those socio-political tendencies that define this or that genre of literary literature. Abstract study of M. l. outside the processes of class struggle that create it, it is absolutely fruitless.
Timeless signs do not determine the essence of the ML, the form and content of the swarm are determined by the interweaving of specific socio-historical conditions. In such memoirs as Bolotov's Notes, on the one hand, and V. G. Korolenko's The History of My Contemporary, on the other hand, there is nothing in common except for the desire for the most truthful depiction of the past, a desire that manifests itself in different content and different forms in two representatives of different classes in two profoundly different historical epochs. The study of memoirs outside their specific class conditionality inevitably leads to idealistic abstractions.
Being a specific form of manifestation of certain styles, memoir genres are conditioned in all their features by the same socio-economic conditions that determine styles, and serve the same goals of class practice. The memoirs of S. T. Aksakov, created by a representative of the landlord Slavophilism, differ significantly from the memoirs of I. A. Khudyakov, a representative of the revolutionary raznochinstvo, who expressed the interests of the revolutionary peasant democracy of the 60s. Aksakov’s memoirs (“Family Chronicle”, “Childhood of Bagrov’s Grandson”) depict the everyday idyll of a noble estate of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, idyllically interpreting even the most ugly aspects of this life (“good afternoon” of the landowner, including kicks to the courtyards), give a picture upbringing, life and education of a young nobleman in the conditions of an established, calm, secure estate life, highlighting as a necessity the most severe mockery of serfs (grandfather's "sin" and other episodes). Aksakov's memoirs - a genre that tells about the family and estate life of a noble nest at the end of the 18th century - idealize the bygone world, to which the Slavophil landowner gravitated with his social cult of the old-fashioned landlord system. Thus, the artistic memoirs of S. T. Aksakov in the class struggle performed the political function of protecting the noble estate land ownership at the time of the growth of the revolutionary struggle against feudalism in Russia, when the revolutionary struggle against feudalism was brewing from the end of the 50s. the revolutionary situation wrested the “liberation of the peasants” from serfdom.
Others are the memoirs created by the revolutionary democrat, Karakozovite I. A. Khudyakov. I. A. Khudyakov - a representative of the vanguard of the revolutionary populism of the 60s, a supporter of a political revolution in the interests of the peasantry and the “people” in general. Sharing the unconditionally common views of the entire circle of Ishutins on the asceticism of the revolutionary, the "severe discipline of his personal life," he gave his memoirs other style and genre features than the representative of the landed estates. The memoir genre of I. A. Khudyakov, reflecting the socio-political life of the era of the 60s, is an expression of "the second stage of the revolution - the stage of the raznochinsk or bourgeois-democratic", in the words of Lenin. If the landowner-memoirist poeticized his past, his childhood and the years of his youth, then the revolutionary raznochinets regarded this past as an irreparable evil. “Our life,” says Khudyakov in the preface about his upbringing, “remained broken and broken and was overwhelmed with a number of physical and moral suffering.” I. A. Khudyakov recognized the benefit of “autobiographies, frankly written”, the character of which he imagined as follows: “Real life is always more instructive than fictional; and in this respect well-written biographies are always more instructive than novels. In an essay about his life, he "omitted those private details that could be a godsend for a novelist or artist," and gave an image of "his unsuccessful struggle with the most cruel obstacles to the achievement of the human ideal." The class position of the author, his worldview determine the specific historical features of this memoir genre.
Differentiation of memoir genres also exists within a single class style. The memoirs of S. I. Kanatchikov “The History of My Life” and A. E. Badaev “The Bolsheviks in the State Duma” are works by representatives of the working class, created almost simultaneously in the era of building socialism (1928-1929). Given the unity of class consciousness and class experience of these two memoirists, their memoirs represent different genres. “The History of My Being” by S. I. Kanatchikov is a social and everyday memoir, the memoirs of A. E. Badaev are socio-political. S. I. Kanatchikov paints a picture of the gradual growth and transformation of a village boy into a conscious worker, a proletarian. Against the backdrop of severe working life at the factories of Moscow and St. Petersburg, the process of the formation of a young proletarian, a conscious fighter for the interests of the proletariat, under conditions of capitalist exploitation, the path of his cultural growth and political development, and the struggle against capitalism are shown. The memoirs of A. E. Badaev reveal the political struggle of the Bolshevik faction in the State Duma in the last years before the revolution of 1917. They describe the revolutionary events of the last years of the existence of the monarchy and show how the activity of the faction was reflected in the revolutionary struggle of the working class and how, in turn, certain moments mass labor movement reflected on the work of the faction. In these two memoirs, different sides of a single class experience are given. Since the authors, representatives of the same class, drew attention to different aspects of reality, they created different genres within the single style of proletarian literature. Nevertheless, these are genres of one class experience - representatives of proletarian socialism.
Each memoirist shows only those facts on which his class consciousness is concentrated, grouping and comprehending the facts from his own class position in the interests of the class struggle. The social class interests of the author of the memoirs are determined, for example. the fact that A. Galakhov, a representative of the reactionary nobility of the 40s, speaking in his memoirs about 1825, did not say a word about the Decembrist uprising. On the contrary, A. I. Herzen, who belonged to the “generation of noble landlord revolutionaries of the first half of the last century”, in which “with all the fluctuations between democracy and liberalism, the democrat nevertheless prevailed” (Lenin), gave an enthusiastic assessment of the Decembrist uprising as ideological fighters against tsarism, infecting their descendants with their example.
Class consciousness and class interests, while determining the themes of memoirs, naturally determine the point of view of the memoirist on the phenomena depicted, on their illumination and interpretation. From this it is clear that the same phenomenon (event, person, fact of literature or journalism) in the memoirs of representatives of different social groups receives not only a different assessment, but also a different presentation of the sequence of events or a different retelling of what he heard or saw. L. Tolstoy, in the memoirs of his like-minded people, receives the traditional icon-painting appearance of a sentimental sage and non-resistance to evil. In the memoirs of M. Gorky, he is shown as a living person with bright features of a contradictory psychology, through which Lenin saw a peasant in master Tolstoy. The question naturally arises, whose portrayal of L. Tolstoy is the most truthful, the most reliable, that is, objectively historical? The memoirs closest to objective truth will be those that reflect the criticism and worldview of the progressive, revolutionary class of the given epoch. Gorky's memoirs represent the highest degree of objectivity in the knowledge and image of L. Tolstoy, while the memoirs of the Tolstoyans do not give a correct reflection of reality. The memoirs of proletarian revolutionaries also represent the highest degree of objective historical knowledge of reality, in comparison with the memoirists of other groups (classes) who have gone to those who are active now. The revolutionary practice of the advanced class provides the most true, accurate and deep knowledge of phenomena.
The difference in class tendencies, conditioned by the difference in the class experience of different class groups (classes), creates profoundly different and opposing genres of musical literature. Single genre M. l. does not exist. Arising on different and opposing class foundations, the genres of M. l. different and opposite both in the main and in the secondary features.
The class orientation of memoirs reduces their objective-cognitive function, usually if it comes from reactionary classes, exploiting classes interested in glossing over the contradictions of reality. Conversely, the consistent partisanship of the representatives of the revolutionary classes enhances the objective cognitive significance of their memoirs. In this respect, the corresponding records of proletarian revolutionaries, leaders of the working class, revolutionary practice, historical tasks and ultimate goals which form a real basis for the most profound and accurate knowledge of the surrounding world. This is Lenin's final pamphlet on the Second Congress of the RSDLP ("One Step Forward, Two Steps Back", 1904), which is a kind of "memory" of one of the participants in the events. This work remains unsurpassed to this day, the pinnacle of a truly scientific and truly objective, for all its partisanship, comprehension of one of the most important stages in the development of the international working-class movement. It is enough to compare the subjectivist distortion and vulgarization of historical reality by L. Trotsky in his book “Mein Leben” (My Life) with this Leninist Bolshevik, genuine authenticity in order to see the completely opposite cognitive meaning of literary literature, the class orientation of which follows the line of the class interests of the bourgeoisie. and counter-revolution.
When evaluating autobiographical records, in addition to all of the above, it should be borne in mind that these records are often compiled with the explicit purpose of self-justification, self-defense of their author. The most detailed and extremely factual at first glance notes of the Decembrist D.I. Zavalishin, when compared with a number of historical documents, turn out to be very unstable in their supposedly documentary-accurate statements, especially regarding the behavior of Zavalishin himself in the December 14 case: the noble posture of the author of the notes is completely discredited a number of protocol records, sealed with his signature, and a report from the commission of inquiry. Even in those cases where the author sets himself the special goal of exposing himself, one should not succumb to the emphatically sincere tone of such self-disclosures. In Rousseau's Confessions, this spectacular motif of extreme frankness is used more than once in an actor's way.
But of particular value to the historian of literature are notes written by great artists of the word and providing rich material not only for studying the writer's biography, but also for studying the creative personality of the writer (memoirs of J. Sand, Mme de Stael, the diary of the Goncourts, the memoirs of Goethe and others - in the West, diaries of Pushkin, Tolstoy, Bryusov, memoirs of M. Gorky - with us). In such works we often find direct indications of the writer's intentions, of the creative history of individual concrete works. In addition, in addition to cases of direct indications, records acquire a new and special significance in the context of creative history, in which vital material is reproduced in documentary form, which has found another reflection from the same author - artistic. From this point of view, the memoirs of M. Gorky, collected in his books "Childhood", "In People", "My Universities", etc., are of great value. Comparison of the persons and events depicted here with the first early works of the same Gorky provide excellent material for judgments not only about the process of creativity, about the emergence of a work of art, but also about the creative method, about the artistic style of the writer, about his class attitude to life material.
M. l. can further supply abundant historical material not only for literary research, but also for the artists of the word themselves. It is known that when writing War and Peace, Tolstoy made the widest possible use, along with general historical research, of the memoirs of contemporaries of the epoch he depicts. Memoir materials often give much more space than scientific works on history to study the everyday nature of the era, psychology individuals and so on.; M. l. sometimes speaks more to the imagination of the writer and provides more resources for the concrete embodiment of his artistic images. That is why the authors of the so-called. "historical" novels willingly resort to memoir sources. Anatole France, in the novel The Gods Are Thirsty, depicting the French Revolution, and in the collection of short stories The Mother-of-Pearl Chest, which belongs to the same era, reproduces a number of episodes borrowed from extensive M. l.
Quite often and much wider use of M. of l. - when an artist borrows from someone else's notes all the plot material and type of his work. This is how many stories and stories of Soviet literature, dedicated to the era of the civil war, arose. As a typical example of the use of one of these memoirs, one can point to the story of Vsevolod Ivanov "The Death of the Iron", the plot of which is based on the memoirs of the red commander L. Degtyarev, but the transmission and coverage of facts are changed.
Due to the fact that most of the notes are not prepared directly for publication and are made public only later, the value of the material presented in them increases, because it is less subject to distortions of the official censorship of the author and correction of the preliminary secret censorship of the author himself. Because of this, in M. l. such details have come down to us, which hardly penetrated or did not penetrate at all into the press of their time. In the notes of A.S. Pishchevich, for example. we find many facts, which the author had the opportunity to closely observe as a dragoon in the reign of Catherine II and then in the civil service under Paul I; many of these facts reveal for us the details of the officer and bureaucratic life of that time, they report all sorts of "domestic" abuses in the service. It is not surprising that the memoirs preserved from the influence of contemporary censorship, when made public in subsequent eras, arouse a particularly suspicious attitude on the part of the censors. Thus, Bolotov’s memoirs, dedicated to the 18th century, in the first edition, published after the death of the author, were significantly distorted: in subsequent editions, omitted episodes had to be restored from the manuscript, sometimes depicting representatives of bureaucracy, officers and clergy, even despite Bolotov’s desire, in an unattractive light. It is natural that the greatest scope for M.'s studying of l. as a monument of past life and historical situation arises when government passes into the hands of other classes that are not interested in "hiding the secrets" of a class that has already left the stage.
The October Revolution especially contributed to the revival of ML, which belongs to the past and reveals what, under the conditions of this past, could not have been revealed before. A number of memoirs of revolutionary leaders have been made public over the past few years, providing enormous material on the history of the revolutionary movement in Russia, on the history of political parties and internal party differences, revealing the specific situation of the class struggle (memoirs of Lenin by N. K. Krupskaya, A. I. Elizarova , - V. N. Sokolova (“Party card No. 0046340”), N. Nikiforova (“Ants of the Revolution”), etc.).
At the same time, in connection with the heightened sense of historical responsibility of our revolutionary epoch, the "latentness" common to most memoirs has been fundamentally revised: what happens in the revolutionary struggle is now recorded, in a number of cases, not at senile leisure, and even in in any case, not for distant descendants, but in the process of struggle, for contemporaries, for comrades in the same struggle. This is the nature of most of the memoirs of Lenin; This goal also dictated the organizational work to record and record memories of the activities of the Red Army and the History of Factories and Plants, begun on Gorky's initiative.
In this situation, M. l. creates a number of specific class genres. The history of the genre evolution of M. l. has not yet been written, nothing has yet been done to study individual memoir genres from the point of view of their class characteristics, but still it is possible even now to note some groups of memoir works with a fairly obvious social genre nature. "Comments on the Gallic War" by Julius Caesar, combining a number of purely military, political, ethnographic, geographical, and other information about Gaul, the circumstances of its occurrence and, most importantly, its general tendency - to know the conquered country and oppose the idea of Roman statehood to it - serve an expression not only of the expansion of the slave-owning state in its heyday (I century BC), but also of the military-political strategy of Julius Caesar, which grew up on this basis, to-ry brilliantly used the class and tribal contradictions of the Gauls in the interests of the Roman state. "Confession" of Blessed Augustine (4th-5th centuries AD), interpreting theological problems from an individual psychological point of view, telling about bouts of unbelief, religious doubts and hesitations, about the temptations of worldly life, finally shaping itself in a style not designed for theologians , and on secular readers - is the result of the economic decline of the large landowning class of the Roman Empire, the interests of which were expressed by Augustine, and the peculiar literary and ideological "decadence" associated with this decline.
Typical of the feudal era are Geoffroy de Villehardouin's notes on the crusade, in which he himself took part. The feudal-ecclesiastical ideology of the ruling classes finds expression here, first of all, in the fact that Villehardouin is trying to portray the frankly predatory campaign of the “crusaders” of 1202, which caused confusion even in the minds of his contemporaries, as a Christian feat; for the “holy army”, instead of fighting the “infidels”, as it was supposed to, entered into an agreement with the Venetian Republic and plundered the lands of the Christian East in order to form a new Latin empire on the ruins of Byzantium. The subordination of all the historical and historical-everyday material cited in Villehardouin's notes to the high theme of "serving the Lord", disregard for the fact as such, replacing the analysis of facts with generalized declarations about them - characterize the literary design of these notes.
The era of the liberation struggle of cities against the feudal lords is vividly reflected in the memoirs (“De vita sua”) of the French theologian-historian Guibert of Nozhansky (XI-XII centuries), hostile to the rising burghers, but already absorbing the influence coming from the emerging urban culture. Guibert studies closely surrounding reality(expressive descriptions of the history of the Lanskoy commune, his childhood, youth, etc.), life interests him already in itself, he gravitates towards everyday sketches, etc.
The memoir part of Dante's "New Life" in his biographical comments on the sonnets and canzones dedicated to Beatrice, gives the theme of ideal-mystical love for a woman, familiar to the late Middle Ages, in a new, individualistic version, thereby reflecting that general individualism, which became more complicated in Dante's work. the traditional ideology of the feudal nobility in the context of the growth of commercial cities.
Completely opposed to medieval memoirs can be the autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini - the most characteristic work of the era of the growth of capitalist relations in the 16th century. In a distinctly individualistic approach to facts, in the cultivation of colorful material saturated with life, in the absence of dead, abstract, life-leading reasoning, not only the personal warehouse of the adventurous artist Benvenuto Cellini is manifested, but the ideology of the young bourgeoisie of the Renaissance, its willfulness and healthy epicureanism.
In Germany, the era of the Reformation and religious wars creates a form of political memoirs (notes of Charles V, autobiography of G. von Berlichingen, etc.), often turning into a pamphlet (see).
In Spain, which became in the XVI-XVII centuries. a great colonial power, there is a group of memoirs written by participants in the conquest (notes and memoirs of Columbus, Pizarro, Diaz, etc.). These memoirs are usually descriptions of travels to unknown lands, the life of exotic countries, the exploits of Spanish weapons. They are imbued with the spirit of adventurism, Catholic missionary work, admiration for the heroism of the conquerors.
The memoirs of the era of Louis XIII and Louis XIV in the choice of depicted facts, in the cultivation of trifles related to court life and to the royal person, and in this regard, in the microscopic nature of the very manner of depiction, are one of the most obvious literary manifestations of the courtly aristocratic environment of the 17th century. The memoirs of the Duke of Saint-Simon, who speaks with equal significance both about the major political events of that time, and about court intrigues, about the everyday appearance, about the manners of the king (cf. the memoirs of Louis XIV's favorites Montespan and Maintenon, the gallant "Memoirs Duke de Grammont, written at the beginning of the 18th century by A. Hamilton, as well as from earlier ones - Brantome's Memoirs, depicting the history and customs of the court of Charles IX and his successors).
We find similar types of memoirs in Russia, but, due to the general lag of the Russian historical process, only starting from the 18th century. (Notes of Catherine II, Prince Dashkova, Yu. V. Dolgorukov, F. N. Golitsyn, V. N. Golovina and many others).
The disintegration of the absolute monarchy was reflected in the nature of Casanova's memoirs (XVIII century), in the entire ideology of this international adventurer expressed in them, in the entertaining epicureanism of the life-breaker, in the themes that consist of court, secular and love intrigues, spiced with cabalistic charlatanism, in the main tendency to amusing entertainment in the choice of facts and in the presentation. The memoirs of the ideologists of the rising bourgeoisie are permeated with other tendencies. Voltaire's memoirs disavow the old order; Rousseau ("Confession"), Goldoni and Goethe, setting out the stories of their lives, create a monumental biography of a representative of the rising third estate, growing into the central figure of the last century.
The French Revolution revives the genre of political memoirs (notes by Lafayette, Mme de Stael, Mirabeau, C. Desmoulins, Madame Roland, and many others), which are distinguished for the most part by a clearly expressed party orientation, a passionate attitude to issues social life.
“Memoirs of a Parisian Bourgeois” by Dr. Veron, published in the middle of the 19th century, both in the theme that leads to a restaurant, to the stock exchange, to the editorial office, and in the nature of the presentation, designed not for readers who understand from a half-word, belonging to a certain vicious circle, but a broader, "democratic" readership, display the ideology and interests of the bourgeois in the era of flourishing industrial capitalism.
Russian M. l. 19th century gives, along with the secular literary notes of Smirnova and Kern, family and political memoirs of the Decembrists and people close to them (notes by M. A. Bestuzhev and others). The nature of these memoirs is connected - in the first group - with the noble character of Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century. and - in the second group - with the noble-bourgeois nature of the December uprising. The mood of the revolutionary-democratic intelligentsia of the late XIX century. with the greatest force and completeness manifest themselves in the memoirs of Kropotkin, Morozov, Vera Figner, M. Frolenko and a number of others.
Soviet literature, making critical use of the best traditions of revolutionary memoirs, sharpens their agitational and organizing role. At the same time, in connection with the increased interest in revolutionary and generally “social” topics, a curious feature is observed in the very process of creating memoirs: memoirs are now often recorded from the words of peasants or workers who do not have special literary skills and aspirations, and sometimes completely illiterate, but keep in his memory there is much that may interest the Soviet reader. On such records built eg. published by Giza in 1926, T. Ferapontova's book "The Serf Grandmother", which retells the true memories of the peasant woman M. I. Volkova about the fortress period. Behind Lately for the purpose of such recordings, special expeditions were even organized (recordings of the memories of the Ural workers about the October Revolution, made by S. I. Mirer and V. Borovik (“Revolution”, 1931), the story of the old collective farm woman Vasyunkina about her life, recorded by R. S. Lipets, etc.).
Typological differentiation of M. of l. it is necessary to produce not only in a vertical, but also in a horizontal section, i.e., not only in connection with the historical change of social formations and the domination of different classes, but also in connection with their existence and struggle in one and the same era. It suffices, as an example, to contrast Remarque's book of military memoirs "All Quiet in the West" and Furmanov's combat memoirs in his books "Chapaev", "Mutiny". In the first case, we have before us a petty-bourgeois pacifist writer serving the class interests of the bourgeoisie; in the second, we have before us a proletarian writer and revolutionary fighter who knows how to reveal the social meaning of individual military episodes and not only points out a way out, but also agitates for it.
In conclusion, it is necessary to emphasize once again with all force the enormous political role of memoirs. Very often, under the guise of an objective "chronicle of events," the memoirist defends an incorrect, harmful system of views. Such, for example, are the well-known memoirs of the February Revolution by A. Shlyapnikov, who interpret the history of the revolution in a Menshevik and anarcho-syndicalist way, etc. Political memoirs are a naked weapon of the class struggle. This calls for increased vigilance in this area. Bibliography:
Pekarsky P., Russian memoirs of the 18th century, Sovremennik, 1855, Nos. 4, 5, 8; Gennadi G., Notes (memoirs) of Russian people, Bibliographic indications, “Readings in Imp. about-ve history and ancient. ross. at Moscow. universal", 1861, book. IV; Pylyaev M. I., List of the most important memoirs and notes left by Russian writers and public figures and still not yet made public, "Historical Bulletin", 1890, I; Chechulin N., Memoirs, their meaning and place among historical sources, St. Petersburg, 1891; Mintslov S.R., Review of notes, diaries, memoirs, letters and travels related to the history of Russia and printed in Russian. lang., vol. I, II-III, IV-V, Novgorod, 1911-1912.
Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
§ 1. WOMEN'S DISCOURSE: A HISTORY OF INTERPRETATION
§ 2. MODERN INTERPRETATIONS OF THE DISCOURSE ABOUT FEMALE
§ 3. TRADITIONAL FORMS OF SELF-DETERMINATION OF THE PERSON IN RUSSIAN
CULTURE OF THE PRE-PETROVSK TIME
§ 4. MAN IN THE PETROVSK EPOCH
§5. LIFE, AUTOLIFE AND MEMOIR TRADITION
CHAPTER II
N. B. DOLGORUKOI
§ I. HISTORY OF PERCEPTION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE "HANDWRITTEN NOTES"
N. B. DOLGORUKOI
§2. THE SPECIFICITY OF TEXT FORMATION AND ITS SEMANTICS IN
N. B. DOLGORUKOY
CHAPTER III THE WAY OF THE “TRUE CHRISTIAN WOMAN” IN THE WORLD OF EARTHLY PASSIONS IN
MEMORIES" by A. E. LABZINA
§ 1. HAGIOGRAPHIC TRADITION IN "MEMORIES"
A.E. LABZINA
§2. MASONIC RELIGIOUS MYSTICITY AND "MEMORY"
A.E. LABZINA
CHAPTER IV UNIVERSAL FEMALE PERSONALITY IN THE "NOTES"
E. R. DASHKOVA
§1. DISCOURSIVE POTENTIALS OF ^-NARRATORY IN THE "NOTES"
E.R. DASHKOVA
§2. BUILDING, CREATION, CULTIVATION: RELIGIOUS
THE PHILOSOPHICAL UTOPIA OF E. R. DASHKOVA
CHAPTER V THE WOMAN HEROINE AND RUSSIAN HISTORY IN THE "NOTES"
CATHERINE II
§ 1. "NOTES" OF CATHERINE II AS A HISTORICAL SOURCE
§ 2. "NOTES" OF CATHERINE II AS A TEXT OF CULTURE
§ 3. CREATION OF THE TEXT AND "CREATION OF HISTORY" IN THE "NOTES"
CATHERINE II
Recommended list of dissertations
Genesis and genre dynamics of philosophical and artistic forms in Russian prose of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. 2012, doctor of philological sciences Kopteva, Eleonora Ivanovna
The tradition of Russian hagiography in memoirs of the 18th century 2004, candidate of philological sciences Muravyova, Vera Vladimirovna
The process of borrowing and its streamlining in the second half of the 18th century 2001, candidate of philological sciences Geranina, Irina Nikolaevna
The Art of Verbal Portraiture in Russian Memoirs and Autobiographical Literature of the Second Half of the 18th - First Third of the 19th Centuries. 2011, candidate of philological sciences Rudneva, Inna Sergeevna
Cultural myths and utopias in the memoir-epistolary literature of the Russian Enlightenment 2010, Doctor of Philology Prikazchikova, Elena Evgenievna
Introduction to the thesis (part of the abstract) on the topic "The Phenomenon of Women's Autobiographical Literature in Russian Culture in the Second Half of the 18th - Early 19th Centuries"
At the end of the 20th century, there was a tendency in the humanities to intensively study peripheral and marginal historical and literary phenomena. Such phenomena in the former scientific tradition were little studied, since they were generated on the border of literature and non-literary forms. speech activity- life, which, according to Tynyanov's definition, "is teeming with the rudiments of various intellectual activities" [Tynyanov 1993: 130]. An example can be research in the field of modern urban, children's folklore, "naive", "provincial" and popular literature by A. S. Arkhipova, V. V. Baranova, S. B. Borisov, O. Vainshtein, A. P. Minaeva, I. JI. Savkina, I. V. Utekhin and other scientists.
One of the most interesting "marginal" cultural phenomena, which for a long time did not attract genuine scientific interest, is women's writing and especially "women's" discourse about women. In this case, we are talking not just about the work of women writers, but about such texts in which the plot situation of the auto-presentation of a female personality (autobiographical notes, diaries, memoirs) is modeled in the form of a narrative. Russian women's autobiographies have so far been little and incompletely studied, they are practically unknown to a wide circle of readers, but meanwhile they could become a real "discovery" in the knowledge of the history of the Russian personality, Russian culture and literature. However, any intention to such knowledge (both scientific and reader) faces a number of difficulties and problems. If the reader can only complain about the paucity of publications of women's memoirs (first of all, texts of ancient times), then the researcher of the Russian cultural and literary tradition finds himself in a strange situation of "absence in the presence." Today, science shows both interest in memoirs and tendencies towards their study and interpretation, but for all this, a system of generally recognized and generally significant research paradigms and strategies in understanding and describing this cultural phenomenon has not yet been formed.
Underestimation of memoirs in literary science, - according to E. JT. Shklyaeva, - is largely due to the complex, ambiguous attitude of various artists towards them (A. S. Pushkin, JI. N. Tolstoy, A. Akhmatova, etc.). Another tradition comes from V. G. Belinsky, who valued authenticity in memoir literature, and therefore considered it “the last facet in the field of the novel” [Shklyaeva 2002: 3]. To date, researchers of the memoir genre (the theory of which is still at the stage of formation and discussion) have managed to determine only a few parameters, in accordance with which the genre is distinguished from other literary forms and its internal differentiation. This is, first of all, the chronological "point" of the formation of the memoir text and its structure-forming core, that is, the described historical event and the personality of the author. However, in the approach to interpreting a specific memoir text, these, as it is considered, basic and fundamental, criteria are clearly not enough. After all, any "-" notes, autobiographies, memoirs are primarily narrative written texts, one way or another connected with the laws of narration, with the discursive strategies of culture and the mechanisms of text formation existing in it.
Nevertheless, modern theoretical concepts related to the definition of the specifics of narrative texts and the function of discursive practices have not yet found their application in the analysis of autobiographical narration. Apparently, memoir prose, which is considered strictly documentary and “applied”, does not seem to modern researchers to be material adequate to the theories of the text. But it is precisely in connection with them that the most serious problem in understanding memoirs is revealed, which is even a kind of theoretical and methodological incident. This is still not formed, despite the narrative nature of autobiographical texts, an attitude towards two discursive levels characteristic of any narrative: referential and communicative (see: Samorukova 2002, Tyupa 2002, Genette 1980, Lejeime 200J). Most often, only the reference level is seen in memoirs, that is, a story about the history of life or about some real incidents. Attention to this level is so great that, in fact, the content of the texts is exhausted by it, and the texts themselves acquire the character of a “document”. At the same time, the organization of a story about a story or stories, structured by I-narrative, that is, the actual communicative event of the narrative (discourse about a story, incident, etc.), remains out of sight when interpreting the memoir text. As some researchers of the genre rightly point out, memoirs “became a pantry for the historian, who from time to time took from there either a fact, or the features of everyday life, or some kind of judgment, but they themselves did not become the subject of research” [Chaikovskaya 1980: 209]. And various scientific and philological schools, "not paying attention to memoirs as an independent genre<.>considered them as historical, cultural and other sources” [Shklyaeva 2002: 3].
Indeed, studies of autobiographical texts (for example, the classic works by K. I. Chukovsky about the “Memoirs” by A. Panaeva-Golovacheva), numerous introductory articles preceding the publication of memoirs, differ precisely in that they consider them as an exclusively documentary and historical source of information about reliable and specific biographical and historical facts. The concepts of “literary life” and “literary fact” introduced by Russian formalists into scientific use only partly changed the general state of the problem. ■ Indicative in this regard is the attitude of researchers to the "Notes" by E. R. Dashkova. For example, M. M. Safonov believes that this text is “the most important source of biographical information” about the author and contains “valuable material in order to get an idea of her personality, to draw a psychological portrait” [Safonov 1996: 14]. Indeed, Dashkova's Notes, to which a number of works are devoted, are considered only in this perspective, as evidenced, for example, by the solid scientific collection Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova. Research and materials” (St. Petersburg, 1996).
A similar attitude to the memoirs of various eras is expressed by other philologists and historians: common place modern humanities has become a story about a particular person, about certain events only on the basis of materials contained in memoirs or diaries. These are, for example, information and facts of the biography of A. S. Pushkin, M. I. Glinka and their contemporaries, gleaned from A. P. Kern’s “Memoirs” and become well known. They are never questioned and are actively used in scientific papers and concepts. However, a careful analysis of the text allows you to see the presence of special moments in it. E. JI. Shklyaeva considered these "Memoirs" as a text subject to "secondary modeling" and showed how "literary models" influence the text even in descriptions of seemingly purely concrete and real facts. Kern, the researcher believes, “mythologizes those whom he remembers, translates from the real plan<.>into an artistic plan. For example, "the appearance of Glinka is recreated<.>by association with Pushkin's character from "Egyptian Nights", or at least under his impression" [Shklyaeva 2000: 143, 139]. The researcher also notes other literary motifs and images in Kern's Memories, which, for the sake of literary plots, consciously or unconsciously even distorts the true events. So, the memoirist writes that Glinka was buried in the same church as Pushkin, and she cried in the same place. However, Glinka was buried at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, and "they occupied 'the same place' only in the soul and memory of the memoirist", and not in reality [Shklyaeva 2000: 142-143]. Other authors also speak about the narrative complexity of the autobiographical genre in their studies. So, “an autobiography,” according to B. V. Dubin, “is the embodiment of the independence and conscious position of the individual, his civil, political, moral maturity, his aesthetic responsibility. This form is extremely complex, even sophisticated, which is why it appears in the history of culture so late, in fact, simultaneously with the crystallization of the full-fledged figure of the author in literary life” [Dubin 2000: 110].
Indeed, memoirs and diaries are texts arranged and built more complex than is commonly believed. From the point of view of Yu. N. Tynyanov, in one system they can be a fact of literature, and in another - an extra-literary phenomenon. The scientist, showing special attention to this kind of "documentary" texts in culture, emphasized, for example, "the great importance in the literary evolution of<.>epistolary literature of the 19th century", and its "static isolation", in his opinion, "does not at all open the way to the literary personality of the author and only implausibly slips the concept of psychological genesis instead of the concept of literary evolution and literary genesis" (Tynyanov 1993: 124-126). For Yu. N. Tynyanov, a letter of the 1111th century is a phenomenon of a special kind: once “a document”, with time it “becomes a literary fact” [Tynyanov 1993: 130-132]. another type of text - memoirs and autobiographies, functionally similar to the genre of writing.
The duality of the definition of the memoir genre and its boundaries was also seen by other representatives of the Russian formal school. For example, JL Ya. Ginzburg considered memoirs both as an unconditional fact of literature and as a phenomenon of what the formalists called "everyday life". In her works, one can find a rather conditional differentiation of memoir genres, which in the author's concept are called "intermediate prose":
Memoirs, autobiographies, confessions are almost always literature, suggesting readers in the future or present, a kind of plot construction of the image of reality and the image of a person; while letters or diaries consolidate an as yet undetermined process, a process of life with an as yet unknown outcome. Progressive dynamics is replaced by retrospective dynamics. Memoir genres thus approach the novel without being identified with it” [Ginzburg 197G. 12].
Trying to establish the typology of "intermediate prose", the researcher noted that "the typology of memoirs is diverse<.>. Sometimes only the thinnest line separates an autobiography from an autobiographical story or novel” [Ginzburg 197 G. 137]. For J1. Ya. Ginzburg in the study of memoirs, it is important to focus on authenticity and eventfulness, which should distinguish them from artistic autobiographical prose. Nevertheless, in her works, L. Ya. Ginzburg did not define the principles of such a difference.
More consistently and in detail the typology of memoirs in their connection with the genesis of the genre of "novel-memoirs" in Western European literature of the 17th - 18th centuries is studied by V. D. Altashina: . she notes the dominant influence of memoir literature of the 18th century on the creation of the novel as a genre and makes an attempt, following F. Lejeune and J. Genette, to consider precisely the artistic means used in memoirs and autobiographies, from chronicling to romanticizing reality [Altashina 2007].
However, with regard to Russian memoirs, as M. Ya. Bilinkis writes, who devoted a separate study to memoir texts and documentary prose of the 18th century, it should be borne in mind that the definition of a text as memoir or autobiographical is usually associated with an intuitive perception of it as such (the main criteria here - I think , it seems to me) or with tradition. Hence, natural is the uncertainty in the definitions of Russian memoirs, which we find in various reference books, and the very vague conclusion that memoir literature is ""a phenomenon that is historically developing, the origins of which are very far away"" [Bilinkis 1995: 11].
It seems that the problem in this case is not to finally find clear definitions, boundaries or specific features of memoir prose1, but to define and formulate new principles and approaches to understanding its discursive and narrative nature. Modern humanitarian knowledge and the new theoretical concepts that have appeared in it for understanding the phenomenon of "speech behavior" in culture make it possible to determine such principles. As I.P. Smirnov notes, today “narratology is passionate about comprehending the logic of actions that is equally relevant for aesthetically marked narration, and for social behavior, and for describing historical events” [Smirnov 2001: 226]. If narratology is engaged in comprehending the logic of communicative actions, then those categories and concepts that researchers of memoirs are so persistently looking for today turn out to be, in fact, optional for comprehending such logic and for understanding the semantics of the text: the genre of memoirs or autobiographical novel is absolutely not enough to understand the semantics of the text: strict genre definitions are not only optional, but also do not provide any tools or "key" to an adequate reading and interpretation of the text. In this case, other grounds for approaching the analysis of an autobiographical text turn out to be more productive, based on the idea formulated by M. M. Bakhtin about “speech genres” or “speech practices” of culture. From this point of view, a certain genre is also a certain type or form of “verbal communication” of a specific cultural and historical situation or era, that is, one of the forms of a system, discursive practices in the general communicative space of culture. No wonder A. Ya. Gurevich, considering the monograph of the historian N. Z. Davis
1 A similar “solution” to the problem is proposed in a number of modern studies devoted to autobiographies in the broadest sense, see, for example, in: Bronskaya 2001; Mikheev 2006, Savina 2002.
Women on the Margins. Three Seventeenth-Century Lives (1996), which deals with three 17th-century women's autobiographies, defines that particular method of "cultural anthropology" according to which "Fiction and History are sharply separated, and in no way mixed. Such is the method followed by Davis, and to what<.>any historian should follow” [Gurevich 2005: 627].
Memoir texts, therefore, should be considered as texts generated by the general communicative strategies of culture, that is, as types of speech activity and a type of speech practice. With this approach, the problem of constructing this statement as a separate manifestation of the speech-thinking activity of a person of a given era comes to the fore. Consequently, the most important and, indeed, fundamental direction in the study of memoirs is not what they tell about, but how they tell about it, how the personality of the narrator manifests himself in the way of telling, due to his own, era, and certain mental attitudes, and the nature of his "speech activity"3. This personality is not only a writer, but also a "linguistic" (in the terminology of Yu. terminology of V. V. Kolesov).
But even on this path, a researcher of women's memoirs encounters a number of serious obstacles. We are talking about today's popular "gender approach" to the study and interpretation of literary works. Proponents of a "gender" view of the history of literature tend to single out women's discourse and discourse about women's in a separate and
2 Compare, for example, with a similar statement by B. V. Dubin that biography and dashes - autobiography in the 15th-11th century - "as a synonym for the initial completeness of self-realization, ultimately become a micromodel of culture, understood in the spirit of the Kantian Enlightenment" [Dubin 2001: 104].
3 It should be noted that partly the solution to the problem of describing autobiography as a speech genre (from the standpoint of communicatology and narratology) is presented in study guide Nikolina II. L. "Poetics of Russian autobiographical prose" [Nzholina 2002]. For more details about the problems of studying autobiographical literature in modern literary criticism, see: [Grechaia 2003]. a specific area that is different from the general historical and literary process (see, for example, Savkina 2007; Rosenholm 1995: 151). In the works of researchers actively involved in women's discourse, a special gender approach to texts has taken shape with its own methodological principles, which are often opposed to traditional literary criticism. Such a specification seems somewhat far-fetched, since the development of culture and its speech practices is subject to the general mechanisms of word creation. Women's writing in this case is one of the naturally conditioned types of the general speech flow of culture. Of course, it has its own distinctive features and characteristics, but it is precisely these differences that raise questions for an interested researcher about how women's texts participated in the historical and literary process, what they brought into it, what they contributed to, what they abandoned. And, since women expressed themselves in the narrative word, in any approach to the study of the phenomenon of the feminine, it is impossible and unnecessary to ignore the method of auto-presentation proposed by the authors themselves - a literary text. l.-a.
There is another problem that is relevant specifically for the researcher of texts of the 18th century. This is the absence of a generally recognized conceptualization of the specifics of the existence of a text in Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. The complexity of solving this problem lies in the fact that so far there are very few generalizing works on the Russian XVIII century, although authoritative specialists have repeatedly spoken about the specifics of this cultural era, its versatility and the relevance of further in-depth and comprehensive scientific research (Yu. M. Lotman, B (A. Uspensky, V. N. Toporov, V: M. Zhivov, A. Jl. Zorin, O. M. Goncharova, et al.). In addition, Russian literary criticism as a whole is characterized by “neglect” of prose and memoirs of the 18th century. As M. Ya. Bilinkis notes, it is easy to see that in studies of Russian literature of the 18th century, prose works have traditionally been and are given a secondary place.
Most often, separate articles or narrowly specialized dissertation essays are devoted to them. Modern monographs, whose protagonist is the prose of the first half of the 18th century, are published mainly outside of Russia. However, even in them, prose genres appear as a kind of exoticism, commenting on the processes on the "main line" - in Russian poetry of this period" [Bniainkis 1995: 3]."
Indeed, Russian prose of the 18th century, despite "the presence of a number of interesting works(Yu. M. Lotman, V. N. Toporova, T. E. Avtukhovich, M. Ya. Bilinkis, M. V. Ivanov, F. Z. Kanunova, N. D. Kochetkova, G. N. Moiseeva, E A. Surkov,), has not yet been studied to the extent that could provide a reliable and complete description of its general characteristics, features and development paths. The reason for this is primarily those historical and literary schemes through which it is customary to consider the literature of the 18th century as a whole. Authoritative scientists have repeatedly spoken about the dogmatic nature of such schemes, about their inconsistency with the real state of affairs, but modern ideas about the Russian 18th century also determine exceptional interest and attachment to the “main” lines of literature. However, these “main” lines, already thoroughly described more than once, connected mainly with the development of poetry (classicism - sentimentalism - pre-romanticism), practically do not affect such text streams of Russian culture of the second half of the 18th century as memoirs and autobiographical notes, despite the fact that that "the 18th century appears to be the period of affirmation of the memoir genre" [Khrenov, Sokolov 2001:329].
Modern science is especially inattentive to women's memoirs of this era. It is significant that even in a special study by M. Ya. Bilinkis, only men's memoirs are discussed, which turn out to be remarkable precisely because their authors actively participated in state activities or were officers of the Russian army, and therefore left many interesting testimonies about their time. Next to such texts and in the vicinity of the peak phenomena of Russian literature of the 18th century, women's writing seems to be an optional, spontaneous and isolated phenomenon.
Thus, we can say that the scientific tradition that studies specific women's creativity and texts created by women authors of the 18th century is still in its infancy in Russia. The search for substantiated theoretical and methodological strategies for studying women's memoirs is also relevant for modern science. Existing system approaches to the analysis and interpretation of memoirs as a whole made it possible to create a number of historical and literary descriptions and classifications that expanded our understanding of the textual specifics of Russian culture and literature. But it is impossible not to see that these descriptions, having exhausted the possibilities provided to the researcher by the already mastered analytical methods, do not allow literary thought to develop further. It is obvious that now it is necessary to go not only to the further systematization of memoir prose, to the search for new sources and the discovery of new texts, but, above all, to an in-depth understanding of the originality of the autobiographical narrative, its essence as a special cultural phenomenon that has and embodies its own discursive tasks. This is especially true of women's memoirs and texts of distant eras, for example, Russian XVIII century.
The problem in this case also lies in the fact that the generally accepted rating system, in fact, does not take into account a number of significant and significant factors in approaches to memoirs: such as, for example, the specifics of cultural and historical reality. After all, each cultural era is indicative of its own clear and strict system of “coordinates”, which models in the minds of contemporaries the semantics of that categorical matrix through which some type of text is perceived, understood and, most importantly, created. Each cultural epoch dictates its own rules for evaluating a person's personality, which becomes the main subject of the author's reflection in the self-narration. Therefore, in the study of memoir texts of the 18th century, one of the most significant methodological guidelines should be special attention to the cultural and historical-literary context of this era, to the specifics of the common discursive space and communicative strategies of the culture of this time. Another important characteristic proposed research strategies is the approach to the memoir text as a narrative text, which suggests the need and possibility of analyzing memoirs as an organized and structured narrative not only in terms of genre form, but also the semantics of the work. Thus, according to the leading researcher of the autobiographical genre, F. Lejeune, “the autobiographical genre has its own structuring rules” [Lejeune 2000]. In this plan special attention deserves the figure of the I-narrator, since it is in the autobiographical narrative that this subject of speech has a special significance for the interpretation of the entire work as a whole: 1<
This perhaps authorizes us to organize, or at any rate to formulate, the problems of analyzing narrative discourse according to categories borrowed from the grammar of verbs, categories that I will reduce here to three basic classes of verb determinations: those dealing with temporal relations between narrative and story, which I will arrange under the heading of "tense"; those dealing with modalities (forms and degrees) of narrative "representation", and thus with the "mood" of the narrative; and finally, those dealing with the way in which the narrating itself is implicated in the narrative, narrating in the sense in which I have defined it, that is, the narrative situation or its instance, and along with that its two protagonists: the narrator and his audience, real or implied . voice"4 .
Which probably leads us to classify, or at any rate formulate, the problems of analysis of narrative discourse according to categories borrowed from the grammar of verb forms, categories that I will reduce here to the three main morphological adjectives of verbs: those that have to do with the temporal relationships between narra !willow and history, I will call "temporary"; that they are dealing with the modality (form and degree) of narrative "representation", and therefore have a bearing on the "modality" of narrative; and, finally, those by which the narrative itself is implied in the narrative, that is, what I define as the situation of the narrative, the narrative itself, connecting two components: the author and the audience, the real and the imagined, . "pledge" ”(hereinafter my translation is O. M).
The main attention of the researcher should be focused in this case not on the real-historical author of the notes or memoirs; but on the figurative-speech organization of the text, behind which stands the figure of "speaking" or "narrative".
Ikw ^ "The experience of modern humanities, thus, defines new opportunities and research strategies in the study of autobiographical texts, especially women's texts of the 18th century, which have not yet attracted close attention. The need for such a study, strongly felt today, determines the relevance of the dissertation work Its main goal is to study women's memoirs of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries as a cultural phenomenon generated by its time and determined by the originality of its discursive practices and text-forming mechanisms. - the beginning of the XIX century.This also determines the main tasks of the dissertation research:
1. to determine the theoretical and methodological foundations and analytical j-bi-strategies for studying the text of a woman's autobiography of the second half
XVIII - early XIX century;
2. identify a system of cultural, historical and literary factors that influenced the interpretation of the category of the feminine, and the main
U^ - mechanisms of text formation that formed women's memoir writing;
3. to analyze the specific texts most representative of the memoir prose of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries and to characterize the specifics of their narrative structure and figurative-speech organization;
4. determine the semantic parameters of the autobiographical female text.
The main material for the study is the autobiographical texts of N. B. Dolgoruky (“Handwritten Notes”), A. E. Labzina (“Memoirs of a Noble Woman”), E. R. Dashkova (“Notes”), Empress Catherine II (“Notes ”), as well as works of Russian and European literature of the 18th - 19th centuries, forming a historical and literary context. The choice of the main material for the study is due to the fact that, firstly, these four texts combine both time and autobiographical orientation, but, secondly, they are different in their textual semantics and purpose, written by women of different social standing and fame, which allows you to get an idea about the memoirs of women's prose of the era and its main trends in general. Consideration of these materials in their systemic unity with the involvement of theoretically and logically sound approaches to text analysis provides the greatest reliability: the results of a dissertation research.
The general theoretical and methodological basis of the study is the historical-literary and typological approaches to the study of a work of art in combination with modern techniques analysis presented in narratology and communicative approach. The concepts of M. M. Bakhtin, A. Ya. Gurevich, Yu. M. Lotman, V. M. Zhivov, V. N. Toporov, A. L. Zorin, O. M. Goncharova , V. Proskurina, I. P. Smirnova, Yu. N. Tynyanov, V. I. Tyupa, B. A. Uspensky, I. V. Samorukova, Yu. areas of humanitarian knowledge (history, communication; narratology, discourse theory, semiotics, philosophy, linguistics).
The main provisions of the dissertation submitted for defense:
1. In the 18th century, one of the phenomena of the new Russian culture and literature was formed - women's autobiographical discourse.
2. Women's memoirs of the second half of the 18th-early 19th centuries are part of the general discursive and textual space of culture, since they use basic communicative strategies and mechanisms characteristic of the Russian literary tradition.
3. Women's autobiographical texts are a complexly organized narrative model focused on the process of female self-realization and awareness of female identity that is relevant to Russian culture in the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries.
4. Women's narrative text is based on the use of various speech practices and genre traditions (hagiographic canon, philosophical and historiosophical discourse of the Enlightenment, Masonic religious and mystical discourse, secular texts of the late 18th - early 19th century), which allows us to consider this phenomenon as naturally ■ included in historical and literary process1 of his time.
5. At the level of the figurative-speech organization of the female autobiographical text, two plans are distinguished that are essential for its understanding: the image of the L-heroine and the speech structure of the L-narrative. I, the heroine of female writing, is a model of self-identification, the speech side of the text is designed to interpret such a model as ideal.
6. Organized by common mechanisms of text generation, women's memoirs of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries have typologically similar features. The author's individuality and the specificity of the statement manifest themselves at the level of semantics: female ideality can appear in the texts of the era in the images of a hagiographic heroine, mystical femininity, a universal female personality or a woman in history.
The research goals and objectives set in relation to women's autobiographical discourse, which in their complex form have never been used as research strategies, determine the scientific novelty of the dissertation research. In the scientific tradition, it is customary to consider an autobiographical text as a genuine evidence of what is happening, a kind of historical document, a source of knowledge about the era in which it was written. Women's memoirs of the 16th century, as specifically organized narrative texts, having their own special figurative-speech structure and semantics associated with the general cultural patterns of the era and the historical and literary context, have not yet been the subject of scientific literary research.
The theoretical significance of the dissertation research lies in the fact that new strategies in the study of autobiographical discourse were theoretically substantiated in it; used theoretical definitions that significantly change the approach to memoir literature* in general, and to women's autobiographical writing in particular; the main theoretical and methodological approaches to the analysis of women's autobiographical texts, the features of their poetics, semantics and narrative structure are characterized. At the same time, the dissertation research substantiates the need to recognize women's autobiography as an object of scientific historical and literary reflection associated with such a sphere of modern humanitarian knowledge as historical anthropology.
Scientific and practical significance of the dissertation. The results and materials of the study can be used for inclusion in the educational and methodological complex for the study of Russian literature and fiction of the 18th century, in the construction of courses in the history of literature, special courses, as well as in preparing for publication and commenting on the texts of women's memoirs of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries .
Approbation of work. The materials and results of the dissertation research in the form of reports were presented at scientific conferences and scientific and practical seminars: the international conference "Ideology and Rhetoric" (St. Petersburg, 2002); international conference "East-West" (Volgograd, 2004), IV interuniversity conference of young researchers "Gender relations in modern society: global and local” (St. Petersburg, 2004); International Conference “Codes of Russian Classics. Problems of detection, reading and updating” (Samara, 2005); V Interuniversity Conference of Young Researchers on Gender Issues “Gender Practices: Traditions and Innovations” (St. Petersburg, 2005); interuniversity conference dedicated to the 75th anniversary of prof. V. A. Zapadova, “Problems and Prospects for the Study of Russian Literature of the 18th Century” (St. Petersburg, 2005); International Conference "Spirituality in Russian Literature of the 18th Century" (IMLI RAS, Moscow, 2005); interuniversity conference "Herzen Readings" (St. Petersburg, 2005); scientific and theoretical seminar "Theoretical aspects of everyday life" within the framework of the international conference "Everyday life as a text of culture" (Kirov, 2005); international seminar on family psychology (St. Petersburg, 2006), VIII international conference for young philologists (Tallinn, 2006); interuniversity conference "Herzen Readings" (St. Petersburg, 2007).
Similar theses majoring in Russian Literature, 10.01.01 VAK code
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CONCLUSION
Russian XVIII century is the time of state reforms and cultural innovative transformations, which created not only " new Russia”, but also a new Russian personality. Due to the specifics of the era, the active search for national identity contributes to the formation of the "personality" in its new status - "historical" and at the same time "anthropological" being, and generates new types of discourse necessary for the manifestation and implementation of the Russian personality. The formation of personal individuality is accompanied by the obligatory formation of new mechanisms that allow the individual to “say” about himself, verbalize himself, make himself the “subject” of reflection - put himself in the center new history and new time. One of these ways to express oneself has become autobiographical writing, a special “personal” form of expression that has evolved from a variety of discursive practices and codes. It is no coincidence that the 18th century became the heyday of the memoir genre.
At the same time, the uniqueness of the cultural situation of the era lies not only in the formation of individuality in the general anthroposophical sense. It was at this time, sharply changing the stereotypes of thinking and mental attitudes, that the comprehension of the category of the feminine in its relation to the masculine and to the entire semantic space of national culture and being as a whole was updated. At the same time, there arises the idea of a real female personality and the need for its discursive designation. Having received her status in culture, a woman also receives the possibilities of self-identification: verbal self-realization and verbalization, the right to creativity, regardless of what stage in the social hierarchy she occupies. A nun, a traveler, the president of the Academy of Sciences, a noble woman or an empress - they all feel themselves to be part of history, state and / or personal, they realize themselves as the subject and object of a narrative, a “story” about themselves.
The main problem of the dicursive realization of the female personality and female identity was the problem of organizing the text of the I-narrative. And although this problem was significant for the entire Russian discourse of the 18th century, which gravitated towards innovative textual models, it was especially relevant for women's creativity, since Russian culture * had no experience of secular women's writing and autobiography. Russian memoirists of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, in search of their own "text", are included in the general literary process, using basic communication strategies and mechanisms that are characteristic of this time as a whole.
Being part of the general textual space of culture, women's autobiographical texts are complexly organized narrative models designed to depict the female automodel and the very principles of automodelling. Such a narrative text is based on the use of various speech practices and genre traditions, which also allows us to consider women's memoirs as a natural and conditioned phenomenon of the Russian historical and literary process. Like other texts of the era, women's writing, of course, was associated with the national tradition of depicting an ideal personality or its self-realization. First of all, these are text formations that are significant for the Russian consciousness, such as religious and educational works (lives and apocrypha, legends and chronicle legends), in which sometimes a woman could also be the object of the image. Philosophical and historiosophical discourse of the Enlightenment, Masonic religious and mystical discourse, and secular texts of the 18th century, which were popular in the new cultural paradigm, became another guideline for organizing an autobiographical female narrative. These textual models not only provided opportunities for the idealization of the feminine, but also included the female heroine in the space of modern culture.
That is why every woman's story about herself, told by different authors - Dolgoruky, Labzina, Dashkova and Catherine II - is a complex construct with a special internal structure. Organized by the general mechanisms of text generation, women's memoirs of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries have typologically similar features: the narrative structure includes the central image of the ^-heroine (the model of self-identification used in the text) and has a complex figurative and speech design. -i- narration(discursively expressed model of self-identification). The author's individuality and the specificity of the statement manifest themselves at the level of semantics: female ideality can appear in the texts of the era in the images of a hagiographic heroine, mystical femininity, a universal female personality or a woman in history.
Each of the considered texts presents individual mechanisms of verbalization of the female personality, self-realization and self-sacralization. Despite the genre affiliation and typological similarities that unite them, due to the cultural and temporal context, each of the memoirists presents her own principles of semantization and interpretation of the female personality.
N. B. Dolgorukaya enters herself into the “male discourse”, appropriating the texts of traditional culture, which affects the ideal female image she created. Despite the real * belonging to the new secular culture, the outstanding female personality in "Handwritten Notes" is depicted as a typical hagiographic heroine - "righteous". With the help of traditional mechanisms, the (auto) sacralization and self-realization of the author's personality takes place, carried out in the very act of her "handwritten" writing. "Memoirs" by A. E. Labzina in their internal semantics is a unique female text for the Russian religious and mystical tradition, which tells about the "earthly" wanderings of the Soul-Woman. Conceptually, the level of idealization of the heroine in this case turns out to be extremely high, despite the apparent simplicity of the narration. The personality of the heroine in E. R. Dashkova’s “Notes” is not only idealized, but is a model of a universal female personality. This universalism is manifested in the embodiment of two principles (male and female), two cultural models (enlightenment and life) and in the assignment of demiurgic functions by the female personality / But at the same time, the female personality turns out to be precisely the “Russian personality” in the Notes, over whose characteristics there are so many Dashkova's contemporaries thought and created her at the same time. "Notes" of Catherine II are a unique multi-coded text, the main communicative event of which was the pre-creation great history Grand Empress Sovereign. Catherine re-created herself in history, interpreting her heroine in the context of such complex and new for culture semantic formations as "woman and power" and "woman in Russian history", which, under the influence of her writing, are still thought of as "golden ■" century" of Russia.
Thus, women's memoirs,; memoirs, notes of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries expressed in themselves "social and cultural activity verbalized in the statement" [Samorukova 2002: 4]. Women's writing occupied the most important niche in the Russian literature of its time, since it was such a socially significant cultural activity, and, it should be emphasized, especially significant for the Russian culture of the period under consideration. Working with the word, modeling the ideal female image in the culture of the New Age - all this played a huge role in shaping (and for researchers - in understanding) the cultural field of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. That is why the syntagmatics of memoir texts cannot be considered outside their communicative component. In this case, the autobiography becomes the object of literary reflection, and the researcher does not answer the question of the "reliability" of the text, but the question of how exactly this or that text is made, where is the border that A. Ya. Eurevich designated as the border between "History and Fiction", what is their interaction, and, finally, what is their direct or indirect influence on the formation of women's discourse and on the tradition of its perception in the subsequent cultural paradigm.
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Feminist literary criticism
Feminist literary criticism
Irina Zherebkina
1. Introduction: the concept of feminist literary criticism
Feminist literary criticism arose thirty years ago, having become widespread in Western Europe and the United States. Today, there is practically no major American university that does not have courses in women's/feminist literature and criticism, as well as the gender aspects of literary creativity.
The main goal of feminist literary criticism is to re-evaluate the classical canon of "great" literary texts in terms of 1) female authorship, 2) female reading, and 3) the so-called female writing styles. In general, feminist literary criticism can be philosophically and theoretically oriented towards in different ways, but one thing remains common to all its varieties - this is the recognition of a special way of female existence in the world and the corresponding female representational strategies. Hence the main demand of feminist literary criticism about the need for a feminist revision of traditional views on literature and writing practices, as well as the thesis about the need to create a social history of women's literature.
Following Elizabeth Gross, feminist literary criticism can be divided into the following main components:
1) women's literature - the emphasis is on the gender of the author;
2) women's reading the emphasis is on the perception of the reader;
3) women's writing the emphasis is on the style of the text;
4) female autobiography - the emphasis is on the content of the text.
In accordance with this, Gross also distinguishes three main types of texts:
1) "women's texts" - written by women authors;
2) "feminine texts" - written in a style that is culturally designated as "feminine";
3) "feminist texts" - deliberately challenging the methods, goals and objectives of the dominant phallocentric / patriarchal literary canon.
The most famous methodological works on the theory of "women's literature" include the works of Mary Ellmann (Think of women 1968); Ellen Moers (Literary woman, 1976); Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar (Mad in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Literary Imagination in XIXcentury,1979); Rachel DuPlessis (Writing and Endless: Narrative Strategies in Women's Literature XXcentury,1985); Elaine Showalter 1977); collections New Feminist Criticism. Essays on Women, Literature and Theory(1985), These Modern Women: Autobiographical Essays from the 20s(1978) and Daughters of Decadence. Women writers at the turn of the century(1984) edited by Elaine Showalter. Works on the methodology of "women's reading" and "women's writing" include the works of Toril Moi (Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory, 1985); Mary Jacobus (Woman Reading. Essay on Feminist Criticism, 1986), as well as a book edited by her Women's writing and a letter about women, 1979; Shoshany Felman (What does a woman want? Reading and sexual difference, 1993), Alice Jardin ( Gynesis: Woman configurations and modernity, 1985); book edited by Nancy Miller (Poetics of gender, 1986); as well as the work of French theorists Julia Kristeva, Lucy Irigare and Helen Cixous. As for the criterion of autobiography, it is equally characteristic of the concepts of "women's literature" and the concepts of "women's reading" and "women's writing".
2. The concept of women's literature
1) Theoretical approaches: the concept of "gynocriticism"
In 1985, a book was published in the United States, edited by Elaine Showalter. New feminist critique, which collected classic works on the poetics of feminism by such authors as Annette Kolodny, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, Bonnie Zimmerman, Rachel DuPlessis, Alicia Ostryker, Nancy Miller, Rosalind Coward and others. genres of literature created by women; the study of new subjects - such as the psychodynamics of female creativity, linguistics and the problem of female language, the trajectory of individual or collective female authorship, the history of women's literature and the study of individual writers and their works.
In her famous article "On the Question of Feminist Poetics," Elaine Showalter argues for two main methods of analyzing "women's literature":
1) “feminine criticism” - the feminine is reduced to patriarchal sexual codes and gender stereotypes of a male-constructed literary history, which is based on the exploitation and manipulation of traditional female stereotypes;
2) "gynocriticism" - builds new types of women's discourse independently of men's and refuses to simply adapt masculine/patriarchal literary theories and models. The woman in this type of discourse is the author of the text and the producer of textual meanings, expressing new models of literary discourse, which are based on women's own experience and experience. Gyno-criticism, in Showalter's words, begins when we free ourselves from the linear and absolute male literary history, stop fitting women into gaps between the lines of male literature, and instead focus on the new visible world of female culture itself.
Based on the methodology of "gynocriticism", Elaine Showalter identifies three main methods of writing in the development of women's literature: 1) representation of the "feminine" - imitation of the canons of the dominant / patriarchal literary tradition and the internalization of traditional gender standards of art and social roles; 2) representation of the "feminist" - a protest against the dominant / patriarchal standards and values of culture and language, the protection of minority rights and values, including the demand for women's autonomy; 3) the representation of the "female" as a specific female identity that differs from the male canon of representation and writing.
2) Female-centered literature: "time of innocence"
The female-centered tradition in literature is the tradition of studying female authors, female heroines and "female" genres of writing (verse, short story, autobiography, memoirs, diaries); the main concept is the concept of female authorship, determined by the principle of sex, and the basic theoretical construct is the idea of female emancipation in literature.
Ellen Moers, literary woman(1978) - a pioneering attempt to describe the history of women's literature separately from men's: the literary tradition is considered here in terms of the continuity of women's authorship and the mutual influence of women writers on each other, as well as women's literary-emotional textual communication and interaction. Moers insists on different conditions for the formation of gendered authorship in classical Anglo-American literature: if male authorship was formed in the public space of the university, male friendship and public literary discussions (Moers cites the example of Coleridge and Wordsworth, who graduated from Cambridge), then a woman deprived of "the possibility of education and participation in public life, isolated in the space of the home, limited in travel, painfully limited in friendship”, is formed as an author in the private, intimate space of family and intimate reading (Moers refers in this case to a contemporary of Coleridge and Wordsworth Jane Austen). In this situation of female socialization in a private space, the greatest influence on female authors, according to Moers, is exerted by other female authors who precede them, and not by male authors, because only through female authorship can they draw analogies with their own feelings and experiences, usually unfixed men. It can be argued, says Moers, that as a result, the female literary tradition, as it were, "replaces" the male literary tradition for female authors - regardless of the historical period, national context, or social conditions of women writers. All in all, the book makes for an excellent initial introduction to women's literature and feminist literary criticism.
3) "Women's Experience" and "Women's Literature": Extra Literary Criteria in Literature
The main goal of this theoretical direction is the search for specific "female" means of literary expression to reflect the specific female subjectivity in literature. One of the main theses of this approach is the thesis about the importance of empiricism and extra-literary parameters of the study of women's literature - in other words, the thesis of "women's experience" that differs from men's. One of the constructs of “female experience” in literary theory is the construct of “secondary authorship”, since it is implicitly assumed that well-known (that is, women writers included in the literary canon) share gender and language norms and stereotypes that are dominant for this stage of culture, interpreting and internalizing patriarchal aesthetic and social values (otherwise they would not have entered the canon). This approach is most fully implemented in the books of Elaine Showalter: Literature of Their Own: British Women Writers from Brontë to Lessing(1977), Women's madness. Women, madness and English culture, 1830-1980(1985), Sexual anarchy. Gender and culture at the turn of the century(1990) and others.
Elaine Showalter, Literature of Their Own: British Women Writers from Brontë to Lessing(1977) - examines the work of women writers who are considered minor with from the point of view of the “big” literary discourse, representing marginal subjectivity and marginal practices of linguistic expressiveness, which correspond to a certain (affective) topology of female subjectivity.
Showalter argues that the peculiarity of the marginal/secondary topology of the feminine in the literature of the 19th century was determined by the fact that women writers were primarily interpreted by culture according to a biological criterion - as women (with their affects, sensibility and emotions), and only secondarily according to professional - as a writer. As a result, female creativity was interpreted not as a technological result of writing, but as a result of the natural creativity and psychological characteristics of a woman, her special intense (bodily, affective) unique states, that is, as a result of a “demonic female genius” (by analogy with the male bodily “romantic genius in Romantic philosophy). In other words, the construction of female subjectivity was defined through the construction of deviation and the corresponding feeling of guilt in relation to “normative”/male subjectivity. Hence the corresponding female affective expressiveness (“the language of madness”) in 19th-century women's literature as the main form of manifestation of female subjectivity. And only in the late 19th - early 20th centuries in the work of women writers, according to Showalter, there is a refusal to label their own subjectivity as deviant, marginal and affected.
Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar Mad in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Literary Imagination of the 19th Century(1979) - a classic study of women's literature in feminist literary criticism. Unlike Showalter, the authors explore the work of not minor, but famous women writers such as Jane Austen, Mary Shelley, George Eliot and Emily Dickinson, although in their work they also find a patriarchal interpretation of women's literature as pathology and madness, as well as a stable the binarism of the feminine in traditional culture: a woman is either a monster and a witch, or an angelic saint. The authors argue that women writers in a patriarchal culture inevitably fall into its discursive traps, since in any case they are forced to dramatize the ambivalent division between two possible images of the feminine: the traditional patriarchal image and simultaneous resistance to it. This "gap", according to the authors, forms the ambivalent structure of female authorship as the structure of "madness". Another symbol of the "crazy" identity of female writers, which Gilbert and Gubar also use in their study, is the mirror symbol, which expresses the female dramatic state of the gap: the desire to conform to male normative ideas about a woman and the simultaneous desire to reject these norms and ideas.
Thus, Gilbert and Gubar not only consistently explore the tradition of women's literature, but also problematize it, while avoiding the markings of "innocent historicism".
4) Problems and search for new theoretical foundations: criticism of the concepts of "female authorship" and "female experience" in literature
Already at the end of the 80s, the construction “woman as the author of the text”, so productive in the 70s, caused several philosophical problematizations. According to Toril Moi, the main methodological problem of "women's literature" is the goal of creating a special, female literary canon in its difference from the male one. But the new canon can be no less repressive than the old one, Moy warns, following Foucault, by reminding that in Foucault's theory of marginal practices, the goal was to avoid any overbearing dominant canon, not to build a new one. In addition, after the “death of the author” proclaimed by Barthes in 1977 (the text is not an expression of individual subjectivity or a simple representation of external sociality, but is an act of writing, material manipulation of signs, discursive structure, textual elements), it is impossible to speak of authorial authenticity in general, which means , it is not possible to set the authorship encoding as female authorship. Women writers can produce masculine writing, and anti-feminist women can produce feminist writing. Therefore, the concepts of "women's literature" in feminist literary criticism are being replaced by the concepts of "women's reading" and "women's writing", using the concept of "female" not on the basis of biological gender authorship, but on the basis of various sexual styles of textual practices.
3. The concept of "women's reading"
1) The main provisions of the theory of "women's reading"
Barth's thesis about changing the politics of literature from the production of texts to their perception (the death of an author meant the birth of a reader) turned out to be very fruitful for feminist literary criticism: since the procedure of perception allows us to detect the multiplicity and ambivalence of text structures, it means that it also allows us to identify specifically gender / female textual reception. , which was considered "minor" in the history of "big"/male literature and criticism. Thus, it was discovered that from now on any text can be analyzed from a female/feminist point of view and that a special topology of female subjectivity, in contrast to male subjectivity, is associated with the structure of perception.
One of the leading characteristics in the structure of female perception is the characteristics of sexuality and desire, understood very broadly - as the dominant of sensuality in the structure of traditional subjectivity: if the traditional cultural stereotypes of male perception are built on the model of a rigid and rational "I"-identity, then the "female reading" of texts is based on the plural and multiple psychological and social feminine bodily experience. The concept of reading like female desire in feminist criticism, it is expressed in various literary concepts of "women's reading", such as Alice Jardin's "reading ethics"; "frivolous reading" by Elisabeth Berg; reading as a "trance position" Katherine Stimpson; reading as "gender marking" Monique Wittig; "overreading" by Nancy Miller (as "reading between the lines", "deciphering silence", "filling in the gaps of repressed expression"); "recovery reading" by Susan Gubar and Sandra Gilbert (i.e., the discovery of minor female authors, the representation of anonymous female experiences and experiences); "ecstatic reading" by Judith Vetterley ("a woman's reading of women's tests can and is eroticized reading").
From this, the task of women's criticism becomes clear - it consists in teaching a woman to "read like a woman." What does it mean?
1. It is reading outside the traditional theoretical discursive schemes of classical author-reader-genre-historical era literary theory, resisting conventional literary codification, the scientism of literary theory, and the predetermined parameters of an androcentric critical tradition.
2. This is the connection between textuality and sexuality, genre and gender, psychosexual identity and cultural authority.
3. The process of sexual differentiation in the procedure of reading must be considered primarily as a textual one - that is, as a process of production of meanings. By constituting a woman as an object at the moment of our reading, we not only “gender” read the text, but also produce ourselves as women through the efficiency of the identification process.
4. This is reading as a “woman's desire”, that is, reading private, detailed, sensual, built on the principle of “a part instead of a whole”, which becomes a kind of autobiography and is ultimately indistinguishable from the act of writing.
At the same time, feminist criticism postulates the need for the notion of "women's reading" not only as a stylistic but also as an ideological and political argument: "reading like a woman," according to Judith Vetterley, means liberating new meanings of the text a) from the point of view of women's experience, and also b) the right to choose what is most meaningful for women in the text. This thesis is complemented by the well-known thesis of Nancy Miller that feminist reading should not be a "poetics of impartiality", but, on the contrary, a constant reminder that there is nothing impartial in culture at all and that feminist criticism is simply not afraid to represent partiality in relation to women's values. being.
The principles of understanding "women's reading" in feminist literary criticism were most systematically expressed by Annette Kolodny in the article "Map for Rereading: Gender and the Interpretation of Literary Texts" in the book New Feminist Critique (1985). The article was written with the aim of polemically using the theses of the famous work of Harold Bloom "Misreading Card"(1975), which, according to Annette Kolodny, in his thesis "we are what we read" comes from the position of a gender-neutral reader, while a female reader reads differently than a man.
First, women's reading is less abstract than men's: a woman always reads her own real life experiment in the text. Women's reading is the deciphering and discovery of the symbolization of the usually repressed and inaccessible female reality and then "fitting" it into your daily life.
Secondly, in the reading procedure, a woman usually feels a situation of suppression of her feelings and resists this suppression by the force of her own affect.
Thirdly, in women's reading, special attention is paid to female images and female situations, which are deciphered by men as secondary and insignificant.
Annette Kolodny compares how the concept is used differently "reading as revision" Harold Bloom and feminist theorist Adrienne Rich: if for Bloom "revision" is a textual experiment with the aim of building another possible generally valid literary history, then for Rich the main goal of women's reading as "revision" is not a universally valid, but a personal unique story, the main thing in which - the possibility of transforming not a text, but one's own life as a history of suppression.
2) Criticism of the theories of "women's reading"
In the late 1980s, the concept of "women's reading" was also philosophically problematized: writing, according to Derrida, functions in a situation of radical absence of any empirically determined recipient of the text, the text never reaches its destination, and the reader is as dead as the author. . Therefore, in modern feminist literary criticism, not only the concept of “female authorship” is problematized, but also the concept of “female reader”, as well as specific “female reading”.
4. The concept of "women's writing"
1) The main provisions of the theory of "women's writing"
The concept of "women's writing" arises under the influence of the Derridaist concept letters(which he opposed to the concept of speech) as a search for new forms of discursive/philosophical expressiveness. According to Derrida, speech embodies phallic truth, while for the real practice of writing, the concept of truth is always something insignificant and secondary, since the main thing in writing is the experience of writing itself, the production of graphic compositions, and not how graphic the experience of writing corresponds to mental truth. As a result, "writing", as well as literature, are declareda phenomenon that has a feminine nature, that is, the ability to avoid the male dominants of logocentrism.
In work jellyfish laugh(1972) French philosopher and feminist theorist Hélène Cixous introduces for the first time the notion of "women's writing" that later became famous (« ecriture feminine»), which is designed to free a woman from the masculine type of language, striving for a single truth, as well as from the restraining fetters of logic and the pressure of self-consciousness, the burden of which is inevitably present in any actual moment of the speech situation. The purpose of feminine language or feminine writing is decentration systems of traditional textual meanings. In this context, another well-known French philosopher and feminist theorist Lucie Irigare, instead of the traditional "phallic symbolism" in the practice of writing, suggests using technologies that oppose it. "vaginal symbolism". The so-called phallic language, according to Irigare, is based on the semantic effect of the verbal opposition to have / not to have and its endless repetition, while the “vaginal symbolism” opposed to the phallic is capable of producing not repetitions, but differences both in the structure of meaning and in syntactic structure. Against the symbolic structure of the phallus as a structure of "one", the symbolic structure of the vagina puts forward neither "one" or "two", but "two in one" - that is, multiplicity, decenteredness, diffuseness, instead of relations of identity, embodying relations of duration, the mechanism of action of which is not subject to the logical law of consistency (in particular, a woman can never give an unambiguous and consistent answer to a question, preferring to endlessly supplement it, endlessly move in clarifications, returning again and again to the beginning of her thought, etc.).
At the same time, feminist concepts of "women's writing" differ from the Derridaist concept of writing. The main difference is that feminist theories of writing are not limited to a theoretical interest or textual level of working with language, as is the case in Derrida's theory of the feminine, but express in language the painful experience of female repression in culture. Hence, the feminist deconstruction of traditional types of discourse (and text) has not so much a theoretical as a practical goal: not just the release of new textual/symbolic values, but the desire to express the forbidden - repressed - feminine / asymbolic experience carried out outside the discourse of meaning in traditional culture.
Feminist authors, following Jean-Jacques Rousseau, prefer to distinguish between two main types of language use: language rational and language expressive. Feminine types of language and writing belong to the strategies of expressive language - one that escapes beyond the language matrices of established meanings. Feminist authors seek to restore this expressive femininity. In the interview "Language, Persephone and Sacrifice" (1985), Irigare uses the mythological image of Persephone, whom Demeter's mother is looking for and cannot find: only the echo of the disappeared femininity responds to her. Irigare calls the search for femininity the search for a language that “speaks before speech” - a kind of utopian language that speaks “outside and beyond words”, the meaning of which is not fixed in articulated speech.
Where to look for femininity? And how is femininity capable of expressing itself?...
1) Sixu gives the following answer to these questions: femininity is the female body and bodily relations with other bodies. But what, according to Sixu, is hidden under the concept of "body"? And under the concept of "female body"? And what does the feminist slogan " write the body? In answering this question, Cixous again refers us to the Rousseauist conception of two types of language (rational and expressive). Only by using the second type of language - expressive, sensual language - can one discover the existence of a "body": a sensual formation that cannot be rationally comprehended. A man is always in control of his impulses, a woman is not. To write a text for a man means to use complete formulations and concepts; writing a text for a woman means prolonging the situation of incompleteness and infinity in the text. In a women's text there is not and cannot be any beginning or end; such text is not assignable. According to Sixu, the categoriesTraditional language is prevented from directly perceiving the surrounding world by imposing a grid of a priori concepts or definitions on it. Such a perception of the world, according to Sixu, can only be resisted by a naive, not burdened by reflection perception that exists before any linguistic categories - the perception of a child or a woman. In the female perception of the world, as well as in the perception of the child, Siksu believes, not the categories of male rational thinking prevail, but ecstatic ("bodily") communication with the world, which consists primarily of sensations of color, smell, taste. In other words, women's communication with the world is the communication of the physical body with the physical world of things.
2) In asserting the strategies of the female language, Shiksu and Irigare do not stop at the level of the use of words, but descend to a deeper level of grammar. Women's language tends to break the generally accepted syntax. Irigare substantiates the idea of "double syntax": the first expresses the logic of rational thinking, the second - the female repressed unconscious. In the second case, linguistic figures or images do not correlate with traditional logic.
2) Criticism of the concepts of "women's writing"
Modern criticism of the concepts of "female writing" is associated with a general criticism of essentialism in the interpretation of female subjectivity - reducing the structure of female subjectivity to an a priori and unchanging "female essence". Therefore, in modern feminist literary criticism, the analysis of “women's writing” is carried out using the conceptual apparatus and methodology of gender theory, which can discursively reflect all the diversity and complexity of performative, not related to the unique female “essence” of gender identifications in modern literature.
5. Women's autobiography as a special type of "female experience"
The genre of autobiography, along with the genres of diaries and memoirs, traditionally belongs to the "feminine" genres of writing in the literary canon of "great literature". The main task of autobiographical women's writing, as defined in feminist literary criticism, is the task of self-representation of the female self. In this sense, the traditional conceptauto- bio photography in feminist literary criticism changes to the conceptauto- gyno- photography - with an acceptance precisely on female specific subjectivity in autobiographical writing.
What are the main parameters of women's autobiography as a genre that stand out in feminist literary criticism?
1. In a woman's autobiographical writing, the whole woman's life is worthy of description, and not just the defining stages of this life. In terms of content, one of the main themes of women's autobiography is the theme of home and family (it is the family that is recognized as the main model for the formation of gender identity). The difference from classic women's autobiographies lies in the fact that the decisive content parameter today is "fearlessness to talk about your body and sexuality" not as something secondary and additional to the main autobiographical plot, but as the main thing in it.
2. The formal sign of autobiographical writing remains the sign of writing in the first person, while a feature of a woman's autobiography is an appeal to personal experience not as a separate, but as a gender experience of a group.
3. There is a conscious or unconscious substantive opposition of one's inner private world to the world of official history: in a woman's autobiographical text, it is often impossible to determine in principle which historical era it belongs to. This rejection or challenge of official history - through the representation of the themes of home, cuisine, family life, women's and childhood experiences and illnesses, etc. - is recognized as one of the conscious feminist gestures of women's autobiographical writing.
4. In the formal structure of the text, instead of a temporal narrative sequence of events, an emotional sequence is realized; the eventfulness of the “big story” is replaced by the female internal “affected history”. The main type of narrative linking becomes the type of "and...and...and...", in the terminology of Rosie Bridotti.
Foucault's concept of marginal practices had a huge impact on the concept of women's autobiography. Foucault draws an analogy between the traditional carriers of the discourse of recognition in culture - the criminals who produce numerous literature of confessions (the so-called literature of "gangbang speeches"), the sick - and the female subject, represented in culture exclusively through the discourse of guilt. According to feminist researchers, a woman as a socially marginalized object in culture is left with one “privileged” place - a place recognized subjectivity: to the extent that a confessing woman says, and to the extent that she is censored and forbidden to speak, a whole range of female social identities is formed. Foucault pays special attention to the fact that the discourse of recognition in culture is always the discourse of guilt, and that the "ideal" figure of the embodiment of guilt in history is a woman. Indeed, classic studies of women's literature by Elaine Showalter, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar prove that its main form is traditionally autobiographical writing as a letter of recognition, on the basis of which the distinction of genres is built: novella, story, diary, memoir, poetry.
Elaine Showalter applies Foucault's methodology of analysis of marginal practices to the analysis of the phenomenon of the feminine in culture as a "subjectivity of recognition" that is formed in various spheres of reality based on the analysis of the practices of female sexuality (Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Turn of the Century, 1991), Women's Madness (Women's Madness. Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980, 1985) and women's literature, including autobiographical (Their own literature: British women writers from Brontë to Lessing, 1977). Its main conclusion is the conclusion about the inevitable gender asymmetry in culture: if the concept of the feminine in it is always marked as a symbol of the irrational and guilty, the ultimate expression of which is the labeling of “madness”, then the concept of the masculine inevitably correlates with the concepts of reason and rationality. And although the content of the concepts of female and male subjectivity can change in different historical eras, the gender asymmetry of the representative politics of female and male in culture, according to Showalter, remains unchanged: even when the phenomenon of the irrational is represented by a man (confession of sins, pathology or sexual perversions in the discourse of men prose of recognition at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries), at the symbolic level, he receives the inevitable marking of the feminine: “female madness” or “female sensuality” inside the male subject.
Foucault's methodological problem of analytics of female subjectivity as a discourse of recognition is a form of conceptual tension in modern feminist theory, in which today there are two main approaches to assessing women's discourse as a discourse of recognition. The theorists of “equality feminism” call for resistance to the patriarchal mechanisms of production of female subjectivization in culture and equal mastering of male discursive values and norms (in particular, in assessing the female discourse of recognition, it is emphasized that a woman implements not a discourse of guilt, but a discourse of independence, self-affirmation and self-sufficiency). Difference feminist theorists insist that women's specific discourse (including autobiographical discourse as a discourse of recognition) is an alternative form of knowledge and an alternative form of subjectivity. A confessing woman, in their opinion, is not only an object of power, but also a subject of language, and female bodily language as a language of recognition turns out to be that field of suggestive signs - will, desire and independent enjoyment - which undermines the norms of patriarchal culture. Therefore, women's autobiographical discourse, in their opinion, cannot be measured within the framework of traditional male discourse, in which it inevitably acquires secondary markings, and it is necessary to develop our own standards for the analysis of women's autobiographical writing.
6. Conclusion: the implications of feminist literary criticism for literary theory
The effect of feminist literary criticism on literary theory and culture at the end of the 20th century is truly stunning: many texts by female authors (including minor and forgotten ones) have been discovered and studied, not only in the traditions of the leading literatures of the world, but also in the literary traditions of various countries; a significant number of male and female authors of classical literature have been subjected to feminist analysis, from ancient times to the present day; many new interpretations of the classical literary tradition have been proposed; a new apparatus of literary theory has been created, enriched with the apparatus of feminist literary criticism, new strategies for analyzing literary texts have been introduced and are being used. It can be said that today there is no practice of reading a literary or philosophical text that would not take into account its possible gender or feminist interpretation. And most importantly, a new vast academic discipline has been created - feminist literary criticism, within which texts related to women's writing, women's style or women's way of being are produced.
As already noted, in contrast to the logic of essentialism (essentialist concepts of "women's literature", "women's reading" and "women's writing"), feminist theory of the late 20th century puts forward non-essentialist projects of female subjectivation in culture based on postmodern concepts of a decentered subject (in particular, performative gender identification in the literature). It can be said that feminist literary criticism today is at the intersection of these two methodological approaches, theorizing female authorship and female literary creativity in the context of this methodological problematization. And it is in its line in modern gender discourse that the conceptual meeting of the two main strategies for interpreting female subjectivity in the culture of the late 20th century - feminism and post-feminism - takes place, and further retheorization of the problem of female subjectivity in literary theory depends on their possible interaction and mutual influence on each other. Sandrn M. Gilbert, What Do Feminist Critics Want? A Postcard from the Volcano", in Elaine Showalter, ed., The New Feminist Criticism. Essays on Women, Literature and Theory(New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), pp. 29-45.
mary jacobus, Reading Woman: Essays in Feminist Criticism(New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).
Annette Kolodny, "A Map for Rereading: Gender and the Interpretation of Literary Texts", in Elaine Showalter, ed., The New Feminist Criticism. Essays on women. Literature and Theory (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), pp. 46-62. Blame Showalter, The Female Malady Women, Madness, and English Culture. 1830 1980(New York Penguin Books, 1985), p. 4.
