Because social reproduction carried out in the form joint activities people, we can distinguish its two sides:
· people's attitude to nature;
· relationship between people in the process of production.
The first side of social production, which means the attitude of people to nature, is externally expressed in the labor process.
Work is a process between man and nature. In the modern understanding, labor is a purposeful human activity aimed at transforming the objects and forces of nature in order to satisfy his needs. Labor is the basis of the production process.
Main elements of the labor process are:
labor as a purposeful activity;
objects of labor
means of labor.
See also:
Labor as a factor of production must be distinguished from labor power. Work- it is first of all process, while work force - This the totality of the physical qualities and mental abilities of a person and his ability to work. Thus, labor is the process of consuming labor power.
In the process of labor, a person acts on a certain part of nature, which is called the “subject of labor”. The subject of labor- this is what human labor is aimed at (directly natural material or raw material that has already undergone a certain processing).
The impact of a person on the object of labor is carried out with the help of "means of labor". means of labor they call a thing or a complex of things that a person places between himself and the object of labor and which act as a conductor of his influences on this object. The means of labor are divided into two groups: natural or natural (land, forest, water, etc.) and produced, or technical, created by people (machines, equipment, buildings, structures).
The objects of labor and means of labor are collectively called "means of production", and they form a material (objective) factor of production. The labor force is considered as a personal (subjective) factor of production. Means of production and human labor power constitute productive forces.
The productive forces are one of the key categories of Marxist political economy. An approximate analogue of this category in economics is “factors (resources) of production”. It should be noted that in Marxist political economy, the priority was recognized for "labor power", in economics - the equality of all factors of production (labor, capital, land) is affirmed.
In the process of production, people not only influence nature, but also enter into certain relations with each other. The relationship of people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption called industrial relations.
Production relations represent a complex system, since production is not a single act, but a constantly repeating process of the direct production of certain goods, their distribution, exchange and consumption. Outside the unity of these spheres, social production does not exist. In the sphere of production, a product is created that is the subject of distribution, exchange and consumption.
Thus, the second side of social production, covering relations between people, is expressed by the category of "relations of production".
Production relations are in dialectical unity, interaction with productive forces. The most mobile aspect of social production is productive forces. At certain stages of development, the productive forces come into conflict with the relations of production, which turn into a brake on them.
The totality of productive forces and production relations is mode of production. The mode of production and the superstructure (political, legal, philosophical and other views of society and the institutions corresponding to them) form a socio-economic formation, a system of society.
General patterns production processes(elements and structure)
The implementation of technology is possible only if there are three components: the object of labor; tools and means of labor, the labor process.
The subject of labor - a material object to which human labor is applied. The objects of labor are raw materials, semi-finished products, basic and auxiliary materials.
Raw material constitutes the initial material basis for the production of any product, which undergoes physical and (or) deeper transformations in the labor process. Usually, raw materials are understood as products of the extractive industry and agriculture. So, in metallurgy, ores are classified as raw materials, in coke production - coal, in agriculture - the harvested crop, in the food industry - whole-milk products.
Semifinished- a product that has been processed at one or more sites within a single production process and must be transferred to other sites of the same production (enterprise) for final processing. Semi-finished products constitute the work in progress of the enterprise, do not have a selling price.
Basic materials- raw materials that have already undergone processing, which have become a finished product, which, however, is the object of technological processing at other enterprises. The main materials belong to the completed production and have a selling price. Usually they include products of the manufacturing industry (metals, lumber, yarn, cement, etc.).
Auxiliary materials contribute to the production of finished products without defining its essence. They either add to raw materials and basic materials to give them additional consumer properties (dyes), or contribute to the optimal conduct of the technological process (catalysts, fluxes). In accordance with the definition, auxiliary materials also include fuel and electricity, however, according to the accepted system of accounting and planning they are placed in a separate group.
A clear boundary between raw materials, semi-finished products, basic and auxiliary materials, as well as between certain specific substances in general, does not exist. Thus, limestone serves as a raw material for the production of lime and as an auxiliary material (flux) in a number of metallurgical processes. Lime is a semi-finished product for the production of calcium oxide, the main material in the manufacture of building products, an auxiliary material for cleaning Wastewater, the final product as mineral fertilizer. Cast iron processed within one enterprise into steel is a semi-finished product, and when shipped to a consumer, it is a finished product.
Tools - these are material objects that directly affect the object of labor during its processing. These include working machines and equipment ( metal cutting machines, melting and heating furnaces, etc.), as well as mechanisms for moving ore objects in the production process (conveyors, conveyors, cranes, etc.).
Means of labor - material objects that do not directly affect the object of labor during its processing, but contribute to the normal implementation of the technological process. The means of labor include industrial buildings and engineering structures, as well as power plants, transmission and other devices.
Industrial buildings- these are the buildings of the main and auxiliary workshops, laboratories (they have working machines and equipment), as well as all the premises that directly serve the main production (offices, garages, warehouses, depots, etc.).
engineering structures- these are various engineering and construction objects that contribute to the implementation of auxiliary technological processes. These include flyovers, cooling towers, galleries, bunkers, treatment facilities, tanks, etc.
Power plants - equipment for the production or conversion of energy. It includes a variety of engines, steam engines, turbines, electric generators, compressors, electric transformers, etc.
Transfer devices designed to supply electrical, thermal, mechanical energy from motor machines to working machines. This group consists of power lines, air and steam pipelines, gas and water distribution networks, transmissions, etc.
Work (the expenditure of the physical strength of the worker, mental and nervous efforts) is the basis of any technological process. Labor costs are measured by its duration, i.e. the time during which it is carried out. Labor costs are closely related to the concept of "labor productivity".
Labor productivity - the amount of working time required for the manufacture of a unit of output, or the amount of production created per unit of time.
The end result of the technological process is the finished product.
Finished products - products or material, the processing of which is completely finished at this enterprise, they meet the standards, are completed and can be sent to consumers.
Finished products are divided into the main, which is the purpose of production, and by-products, obtained along the way.. For example, in blast-furnace production, the main product is cast iron, and by-products are blast-furnace slag and top gas. They are used in the national economy as one of the components in the production of cement (slag) and secondary energy resources (top gas).
In addition to the main and by-products, waste is generated in technological processes.
Waste on this stage development of science and technology are not used as feedstock, either because they do not meet the requirements and their processing is not economically efficient, or because potential consumers are not psychologically and organizationally ready to process these wastes or are not aware of their presence. In many cases, waste producers also do not have information about the existence of their potential consumers.
On the subject of labor industry is divided into mining and processing.
Extractive industry engaged in the extraction of raw materials from natural, natural reserves. The subject of labor in it are minerals.
processing industry transforms the products of the extractive industry (syrve) as well as its own products (basic materials) into goods with a higher degree of processing. The ratio of the mining and manufacturing industries in Russia in 1995 was 24:76 and had an upward trend.
On the use of finished products industry is divided into two groups: A and B. Group A mainly produces tools and means of labor, group B produces items consumer goods(light, food industry and so on.).
Until recently, group A accounted for 75/o of industry in our country. In post-industrial countries, approximately the same share (60-80%) falls on group B, which makes it possible to satisfy the demands of society in consumer goods and services, while simultaneously providing the necessary technical level and development of the material base of the industries of group B. An excessive share of group A is characteristic of the development trend production for the sake of the needs of production itself, without proper satisfaction of the consumer needs of the population (to make steel for the sake of steel, in order to make steel again).
industry together with agriculture and industrial infrastructure (transport, communications), trade, consumer services and utilities make up production area National economy countries.
In the non-manufacturing area includes science, art, education, health care, state machine administration, army and some other structures.
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4 Technological schemes production: composition and analysis of their structure
The essence and content of the discipline "Technological processes in construction"
The studied discipline - applied Science rational means, methods and methods for performing construction processes that provide processing building materials, semi-finished products and products with a qualitative change in their condition, physical and mechanical properties, geometric dimensions in order to obtain products of a given quality.
The basic principles of construction production: consistency, safety, flexibility (the ability to adapt the construction processes of an object to rapidly changing conditions for the production of work at a joint venture, as well as organizational, technological and resource parameters of the project without loss of quality), resource saving, quality (this is the compliance of all parameters of construction processes with design values and values specified in regulatory documents).
Capital construction and its facilities
Capital construction - industry material production, in which fixed assets for production and non-production purposes are created.
Capital construction includes: new construction (at new sites, initially approved project), expansion (construction of subsequent stages) (according to a new project of the second and subsequent stages of an existing enterprise, additional or new complexes, etc.), reconstruction (full or partial re-equipment or re-equipment without building new ones or extensions of existing ones), technical re-equipment (re-equipment operating enterprise with the replacement of equipment), overhaul (restoration of buildings).
One of the capital construction systems is construction production - a set of production processes carried out directly at the construction site, including construction and installation and special processes in the preparatory and main periods of construction.
The end result of the implementation of a set of construction processes is construction products.
According to Urban Planning Code The Russian Federation does not include capital construction objects: temporary buildings - industrial, storage, auxiliary, residential and public buildings and structures specially erected or adapted for the construction period, necessary for the production of construction and installation works and maintenance of construction workers and subject to dismantling after it disappears the need for their use, non-capital non-stationary - structures, usually made of lightweight structures, which do not provide for the installation of buried foundations and underground structures.
Construction processes, works and products.
Construction technology is a combination of one or more methods and technological means, which can be used to obtain a specific type of construction product.
The construction process is a set of operations, the implementation of which gives a finished product in the form of a structural element or part of it. Construction processes are simple, complex, complex and inter-object.
According to the degree of mechanization, construction processes are divided into fully mechanized, partially mechanized and manual.
Depending on the purpose, construction processes are divided into main, auxiliary, procurement and transport. The main ones include processes, as a result of which parts of structures or structures are created, that is, building products are created. Ancillary processes include processes that do not create building products, but are necessary to perform the main processes. Transport processes include work on the movement of materials and finished parts to the facility under construction and to the workplace. Procurement processes are intended for the manufacture and provision of an object under construction with parts, products and semi-finished products.
By the nature of the processes: continuous processes that allow you to immediately begin the implementation of subsequent ones; discontinuous processes that require mandatory technological breaks before performing subsequent processes for curing and curing concrete, drying plaster;
By significance: the leading processes that determine the final terms of the construction of a building or structure; the combined processes which are carried out in parallel with leading.
Sets of simple and complex processes form construction works.
Construction work: general construction (earth, stone, concrete), special (installation of plumbing devices, electrical), auxiliary (transportation, laying).
Work packages are grouped by periods and construction cycles (construction works depend on the execution time (periods), rational technology (cycles)).
Cycles: zero (underground), above-ground and finishing. Periods: preparatory and main.
Preparation period consists of design and survey work, engineering preparation of the territory, organization of a construction site, arrangement of temporary and permanent roads, networks. The main period includes the underground cycle, aboveground, finishing, installation of technical equipment.
The end result of construction processes is construction products: 1.completed commissioned buildings and structures; 2. their separate parts (sections, flights, etc.); 3.volumes of work performed for certain period time.
Objects and means of labor in construction industry
Objects of labor: building materials, semi-finished products, products.
Building materials are divided into natural (natural) and artificial. Natural materials include forest (roundwood, lumber), stone dense and loose rocks (natural stone, gravel, sand, clay), etc. Artificial materials include: binders (cement, lime), artificial stones (brick), ceramic tiles, synthetic paints and varnishes, metal structures, heat and waterproofing materials, etc. The main semi-finished products include concrete, asphalt, mortar and other composites, which are characterized by the need to use them in a short period of time after preparation. Therefore, semi-finished products do not have sustainable commercial properties. They are closely related to specific building products. Parts and products include prefabricated and mounted elements, such as: door leafs, window frames, beams, trusses, wall panels, floor and coating slabs, sanitary cabins, block rooms, etc., intended for use in buildings and structures of a certain purpose and type.
(SP, SNiP, GOST, OST, TU - regulate the quality documents of objects of labor)
Required properties, technical requirements and requirements for the quality of building materials, semi-finished products, parts and products are established by Building Norms and Rules (SNiP), State standards(GOST), Specifications(THAT). These regulatory documents define the purpose of building materials and parts, requirements for their quality, provide guidance on the selection and use depending on the operating conditions of the building or structure being erected, establish the conditions for transportation, rules for acceptance and storage, rules for the selection of control samples and tests, etc.
Means of labor: basic (machines, building equipment), auxiliary (ladders, etc.), transport.
Construction machines are mobile or stationary technical means with a working body driven by an engine. Mechanisms, unlike construction machines, do not have a special engine. The working body is driven through an appropriate motion converter by the construction workers themselves (hand hoists, winches, rollers, etc.)
Auxiliary technical means play the role of technological, energy, operational and personal equipment, without which it is impossible or irrational to carry out construction work. Technological equipment is designed to ensure the convenience and safety of work, the safety of building materials, semi-finished products and parts (containers, gases and liquids, etc.).
Standard set - a rationally selected set of technical means for equipping the workplace of a link to perform work according to the approved technology with standard performance. The standard sets include small-scale mechanization tools, mechanized and hand tools, technological and organizational equipment, power equipment, devices, measuring and control tools, personal protective equipment for workers.
Means of labor
Means of labor- this is what a person affects the object of labor. The main role here belongs to the tools of labor, the mechanical, physical and chemical properties of which a person uses in accordance with his purpose of labor.
In more In a broad sense, the means of labor include all material conditions of labor without which it (work) cannot be done. The general condition of labor is the earth and the atmosphere (air), the working conditions are also industrial buildings, structures, roads, etc.
The means of labor can be divided into the following types: 1. Natural (land, waterfalls, rivers that are used for economic purposes). 2. Technical means of labor (artificially created by man), which can be divided into structures and buildings, manual tools, mechanical, automatic and others.
1. Buildings and structures are various means of labor created by man., contributing to the improvement of working conditions and the use of tools, for example, roads, airfields, dams, flyovers, buildings for various purposes, bridges and the like.
2. hand tools, that is, those whose use requires only the physical strength of a person. For example, saw, hammer, chisel, pliers, screwdriver, etc. Hand tools are mainly used by such professionals as a carpenter, carpenter, jeweler, locksmith, radio equipment installer, performing musician, surgeon, cleaner and many other specialists.
3. Mechanical, machine tools with manual drive (including transport). This is, for example, a car, an electric car, a lathe, milling machine, electric jigsaw, pneumatic jackhammer, electric hoist and many others. Such labor tools, for example, are used by such professions as a turner, a milling machine operator, a driver, an electric car driver, drivers of diesel locomotives and electric locomotives, many builders, tower and truck crane operators, drilling rig masters, borers and other professions.
4. Automated and automatic equipment , as well as equipment used to ensure long and continuous processes. These are various machines and automatic lines for the production of specific products, such as nail or bolt machine, automatic pasta production line, etc. Blast furnace, open hearth line, boiler houses, equipment for the production of alloy for cheese coating, equipment for the production of ammonia, oil processing equipment and much more. Such tools are used by: a steelmaker, an apparatchik, an operator, a printer, a boiler operator, an operator of rolling mills or production lines, and other professionals.
5. In addition to the tools listed above, man in his labor activity often manages only their own personal opportunities with little or no use of any additional funds or devices, using only their functional capabilities, such as thinking, behavior, voice, speech, facial expressions, and the like. Such means are used, for example, by teachers, educators, directors, other leaders, officials, deputies, actors, singers, various organizers of something, and many other specialists.
The structure of the object of labor includes the subject, means, conditions, goals of labor, etc.
The subject of labor- a system of properties and relationships of things, phenomena, processes, which a person carrying out a given labor activity must mentally or practically operate.
Purpose of labor- the result that society requires or expects from a person.
Goals of professional work
“The purpose of labor is a conscious image of the final result, to which a person strives in the process of his expedient activity. In other words, we can say that the purpose of labor is an idea of the desired future.
The desire to achieve the set goal directs the action, determines the choice possible ways achievements, encourages the search for new actions. The goal is formed in the mind of a person as answers to the questions "What should I do?", "What should I succeed?", "What should I avoid?", "What actions should I take to get the desired result?"
During work, the consciousness of a person is always filled with acts of assessing the situation, comparing the real course of affairs with the idea of \u200b\u200bwhat should happen.
The goals of labor activity are infinitely diverse; they can be reduced to six large groups: gnostic (cognitive), transformative (four groups), exploratory.
Working conditions- features of the environment in which human work takes place, their main types (manual, mechanized; machine-manual; automated and automatic; human functional means as tools of labor).
Working conditions
One of the most important and most multifaceted psychological features of labor is its conditions. The following types of working conditions are distinguished: 1) ordinary microclimatic: a) indoors - domestic, b) outdoors; 2) unusual, causing psychophysiological tension: a) risk to life, b) complex emergencies requiring fast necessary action, c) communication with offenders, the mentally ill and persons with various deviations and defects, d) a clearly defined rhythm and pace, e) physical activity, f) a long stay in one position (static working posture), g) night shifts, h ) specific conditions (temperature, humidity, chemical hazards, vibration, noise, height, depth).
Means of labor in professional activities
“Means of labor are a necessary component labor process. Under the means of labor understand the tools with which a person acts on the object of labor. The means of labor act as a kind of continuation of the natural human organs used in the labor process. Among the tools of labor there are not only things, but also something immaterial - speech, behavior, etc.
Tools of labor are very diverse. Despite this, they are all divided into two groups: real and non-real.
Real tools of labor. Material tools include: manual and mechanized tools; machines (mechanisms), automatic devices, automated means; devices, measuring devices.
Hand tools. The very name "hand tools" comes from the main organ of labor - the human hand. Hand tools have always been and remain in labor as long as a person is alive and able to work. At any level technical progress equipment will have to be assembled, mounted by skillful hands.
They include simple manual, mechanized processing tools and fixtures. Simple hand tools are: a screwdriver, a scalpel (surgical knife), a chisel (a tool for engraving on wood or metal), a bush hammer (one of the tools of stone carvers), trimming (a type of paint brush), a file, a chisel, a hammer, etc. .
Machine tools. Technical devices, completely or partially replacing a person in terms of the methods of converting materials, the distribution of energy or information, are called machines (mechanisms).
Automated means of labor. These are such means that, being set in motion, perform a certain work without human intervention, i.e. at certain stages of the labor process, they completely replace a person, automatically managing the production process. A person only observes the operation of the equipment and controls its correctness and quality. Automatic means of labor include: automatic machines, semi-automatic machines, automatic lines, robotic complexes, devices for performing long-term continuous hidden processes, including technological ones, proceeding at great speed.
Instruments and devices. This is a separate group of means of labor. They are designed to enhance the cognitive functions of a person at work. Most of them are imaging devices: microscopes, binoculars, telescopes, aerial cameras (for topographic surveys of the earth's surface), X-ray machines, flaw detectors, closed-circuit television systems for video monitoring technological processes occurring in conditions inaccessible to humans (under water, in space, in aggressive environments, etc.). There are devices that provide information in the form of conditional signals, numbers, letters, light and sound indicators: chronometers, stopwatches, thermometers, pulse counters, various electrical measuring instruments (ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter, avometer, wattmeter), calipers, micrometers, etc. a separate subgroup is allocated to technical means of speech transmission (information, orders, commands): telephones, megaphones, emergency light scales, alarm bells, video telephones, television systems, musical instruments. IN Lately devices for processing information are widely used: computing machines, automatic reference settings, conversion tables, printing, reading, recording and transmitting devices.
Non-material (functional) tools of labor. Intangible means are usually called functional. The fact is that these means of labor are associated with the manifestation of human functions, such as speech, gestures, facial expressions. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that you cannot touch these means of labor with your hands and you cannot see with your eyes, which usually causes great difficulties in the analysis of the profession. And their awareness is associated with the assimilation of many new psychological concepts: sensory, kinesthetic, somatic, verbal, etc.
Functional tools of labor are mentally held ideas about the samples of the results of labor or a system of "sensory standards". They can be external in relation to consciousness and internal, entering consciousness and held in memory.
These tools of labor are quite diverse, which is due to the richness of the colors of the inner world of a person, manifested in behavior, facial expressions, gestures, speech, etc. They form a large group, which includes: 1) internal, functional sense organs, physiological organs of a person; 2) simple speech; 3) speech is emotional, expressive; 4) business, written speech; 5) behavior in simple forms manifestations - at the level of the whole organism as a whole; 7) behavior is predominantly business-like, impartial; 8) complex intellectual tools used to solve practical and theoretical problems.
different people; patience.")
