In political science there are different approaches to understanding politics. One of them is to consider politics as one of the four main areas of society. The sphere of politics includes both political consciousness and political organizations (government, parliament, parties, etc.), and the tasks that various social groups seek to solve using power, and the political process, going through conflicts and cooperation, including measures to maintaining stability in society and reform. The second approach is based on the understanding of politics as a special type social relations between individuals, small groups and large communities, i.e., relations associated with power, the state, managing the affairs of society. Finally, the third approach is to consider politics as one of the types of activity, that is, the activity of its subjects - participants in political life. All three approaches give a multidimensional view of one object - politics. Historical development and the experience of many generations of thinkers involved in the study of politics and political activity is concentrated in modern science of science, in particular, in political science, sociology, political psychology and other branches of social science.
Politics is activity government agencies, political parties, social movements in the sphere of relations between large social groups, primarily classes, nations and states, aimed at integrating their efforts in order to strengthen political power or win it by specific methods.
Politics is a special kind of activity related to the participation social groups, parties, movements, individuals in the affairs of society and the state, their leadership or influence on this leadership. When considering politics as an activity, there is every reason to recognize it as both a science and the art of managing (the state, people), building relationships and realizing interests, as well as gaining, retaining, and using political power.
It follows that political activity is the main content of the political sphere of life. To define the content of the concept of political activity is to give an essential definition of politics.
Political activity is a kind of activity, directions for changing or maintaining existing political relations. Basically, political activity is the management and management of social relations with the help of institutions of power. Its essence is the management of people, human communities.
The specific content of political activity is: participation in the affairs of the state, determining the forms, tasks and directions of the state, the distribution of power, control over its activities, as well as other impact on political institutions. Each of the points noted generalizes diverse types of activity: for example, the direct performance of political functions by people within the framework of institutions state power and political parties and indirect participation associated with the delegation of authority to certain institutions; professional and non-professional activities; leading and executive activities aimed at strengthening a given political system or, on the contrary, at its destruction; institutionalized or non-institutionalized activities (for example, extremism), etc.
Political activity is also manifested in various forms of participation of the broad masses of the people in the political life of society. In the course of political activity, its participants enter into specific relationships with each other. It can be cooperation, union, mutual support, and confrontation, conflict, struggle. The essence of political activity is revealed in the specifics of its object and structural elements: the subject, goals, means, conditions, knowledge, motivation and norms, and finally, the activity process itself.
The subjects of politics are, firstly, large social communities, which include social groups and strata, classes, nations, estates, etc.; secondly, political organizations and associations (states, parties, mass movements); thirdly, political elites are relatively small groups concentrating power in their hands; fourth, personalities, and above all political leaders.
IN modern Russia the most influential subjects of political activity are political parties and movements (especially in the person of their leaders), all kinds of power structures and bodies, public associations, population (at the time of referendums and election campaigns).
The object of policy is the subject to which the activity of the acting subject is directed and in which the change results. Most often, both the object and the subject of political activity are people, that is, participants in political activity. In political activity, the object-subject relationship is an organic unity: after all, a person is the main subject and object of politics; social groups, organizations, movements also act both as objects of political activity and as its subjects. In addition, the objects of political activity can be social phenomena, processes, situations, facts. From the consideration of the objects of political activity, we can conclude that politics affects the whole society, on all aspects of its life. From this follows the conclusion about the great importance of political activity in the development of society.
Political activity, like any other, involves the definition of its goals. They are divided into long-term (they are called strategic) and current goals. Goals can be relevant, priority and irrelevant, real and unrealistic. How relevant, on the one hand, and how realistic, on the other hand, this or that goal can only be answered by a complete and accurate analysis of the main trends community development, urgent social needs, the alignment of political forces, the interests of various social groups.
Of particular importance is the question of the availability of funds with which to achieve the intended goals. The attitude: the end justifies the means is characteristic of dictatorial regimes and their political carriers. Demanding that the means correspond to the democratic, humane goals of politics is the norm of truly popular forces and political structures expressing their interests. However, many scholars note that a politician often has to choose: either to prevent the danger of taking harsh measures that do not quite correspond to “absolute morality”, or by inaction to allow damage to society. The moral limit that cannot be crossed is today reflected in human rights documents, in international humanitarian law.
An essential feature of political activity is its rationality. Rational actions are conscious, planned, with a clear understanding of the goals and necessary means. Rationality in politics is specific: it includes ideology. The ideological component permeates every political action, as long as it is oriented towards certain values and interests. Moreover, it is a criterion sign of its orientation.
The rational moment, of course, is decisive in the subjective semantic content of political action, expressing the attitude of the subject to the institutions of power. However, political action is not limited to rationality. It leaves room for the irrational as a deviation from purposefulness. Irrational - these are actions motivated mainly by the emotional states of people, for example, their irritation, hatred, fear, impressions of ongoing events. In real political life, rational and irrational principles combine and interact. Political actions are spontaneous and organized. A spontaneous rally and a carefully prepared party conference are examples of such actions.
IN Lately the importance of such methods of political activity as persuasion, the study of public opinion, a constructive dialogue between various political forces, control over compliance with legal norms, and forecasting the consequences of certain political actions has increased. All this requires a high political culture, moral self-control, and political will from the subjects of politics.
Political activity is differentiated into theoretical and practical. Being relatively independent, they are interdependent. political theory becomes effective and efficient when it is based on practical experience and coincides with the needs and interests of those groups that the subject of policy represents.
Political activity is heterogeneous; several distinct states can be distinguished in its structure. It is advisable to start their analysis with a type of activity whose political significance is undoubtedly very great, but the meaning of which lies precisely in the rejection and denial of politics. They are political alienation.
Political alienation is a state of relations between a person and political power, which is characterized by a concentration of human efforts on solving the problems of personal life when they are separated and opposed to political life. Politics is considered in the sphere of alienation as a kind of activity that does not concern real problems, human interests, and contact with political power is considered extremely undesirable. Here a purely forced contact is established with the authorities, the state through a system of duties, taxes, taxes, etc. For ruling groups political alienation is expressed in the transformation public service into the service sector only of private, narrow group interests, power is usurped by individuals, replaced by the struggle of cliques representing corporate interests. Serving the interests of social integrity turns into a means of maintaining only individual life. A striking manifestation of political alienation is the phenomenon of bureaucracy.
The next type of political activity is political passivity.
Political passivity is a type of political activity in which the subject, and it can be either an individual or a social group, does not realize its own interests, but is under the political influence of another social group. Passivity in politics is not inactive; it is a specific form of activity and a form of politics when a social group realizes not its own, but political interests alien to it. A type of political passivity is conformism, which is expressed in the acceptance by a social group of the values of the political system as its own, although they do not correspond to its vital interests. The means of forming conformist political attitudes is a specific technique of influencing the consciousness and behavior of people - manipulation, which involves "the transformation of people into controlled objects, the deformation of their inner world, thoughts, feelings and actions, and thereby the destruction of their personalities through influences that distort ideas about real interests and needs, and imperceptibly, with the seeming preservation of free will, they subordinate people to a will that is alien to them. The manipulation system focuses primarily on the subconscious sphere of the human psyche, and its methods and means modern societies become more and more sophisticated, actively use the achievements of psychology and sociology.
The criterion for the political activity of an individual or a social group is the desire and ability, influencing political power or directly using it, to realize their interests.
The nature of political activity varies significantly depending on the specifics of the problems that cause it, the time of occurrence of the tasks it is aimed at, and the composition of participants.
IN modern conditions political activity has the following characteristic features:
- - the growing desire of citizens to act outside the traditional forms of political activity and participation, instead of rigidly formalized political parties, preference is given to political movements without a clearly defined organized structure;
- - association is increasingly being made not around any party, but around a problem, about its solution;
- - the number of citizens interested in politics is growing, but at the same time the number of parties is falling;
- - More and more people are inclined towards independent politicization, they do not associate their participation in politics with belonging to one or another active political force, structure, but strive to act independently.
The initial stage of pronounced vigorous activity, when the political subject makes a clear choice of the trend of action, is a political position.
A mature form of political activity is a political movement, that is, such a purposeful and long-term social action of a certain social group, which has as its goal the transformation of the political system or its conscious protection.
Thus, the concept of "political activity" reflects the whole variety of people's actions in the field of politics, and the concept of "political activity" - the leading creative, transformative form of political activity, expresses the essence of politics - the implementation by a social group of its own interests. Political participation is a characteristic of the degree of involvement of the subject in politically active action, and the concept of "political behavior" allows you to reveal the mechanism, the structure of political activity.
Lecture 12
Control questions and work protection
Methodology and procedure for performing work
Equipment and materials
For execution laboratory work The following equipment and materials are required:
Personal Computer, which contains the microprocessor model Intel 804486 and higher;
Hard magnetic disk with a capacity of 1 GB or more;
operating system families of Windows versions not lower than 98;
Excel spreadsheet processor.
1. Turn on the computer.
2. Download the EXCEL program.
3. Create three payrolls for departments respectively: department1, department2, department3 on three sheets in one book of the following form:
The table should have 10 entries.
On the next sheet, create a pivot table:
Consolidated statement of issuance wages employees of LLC "Computer World"
4.Save the book in your folder, choose a name arbitrarily.
1. Form of the report - written.
2. Describe the performance of work when performing laboratory work.
3.Demonstrate this work on PC.
4. Answer security questions.
1.Tell us about the method of transferring data from one table to another?
2. What is the difference between the method of copying data using the Edit, Copy commands from the method considered in this laboratory work?
3. How to multiply values across the entire pivot table?
4. How to use the function wizard to use the formula for calculating the average value?
5 What other options does the Function Wizard provide?
1) Political activity.
2) Political leadership.
3) Typology of leaders.
1) Political activity. The functioning of the political system is the process of action of its subjects: state institutions, parties, public organizations, elites, leaders and all citizens. The state, for example, as M. Weber noted, is a complex of specific joint actions of people.
The concept of activity covers the whole variety of forms of active attitude of people to the world around them - natural and social, including its expedient change in accordance with human needs. Each sphere of society's life (economic, social, spiritual, etc.) is characterized by the totality of its inherent forms and activities, as well as social relations.
A special place is occupied by political activity, which is the main content of the political sphere of life. Political activity is a set of organized actions of subjects both within the political system and outside it, subordinated to the implementation of common social interests and goals. Basically, political activity is the management and management of social relations with the help of institutions of power. Its essence is the management of people, human communities.
The specific content of political activity is: participation in the affairs of the state, determining the forms, tasks and directions of the state, the distribution of power, control over its activities, as well as other impact on political institutions. Each of the moments noted generalizes diverse types of activity: the direct performance of political functions by people within the framework of government institutions and political parties and indirect participation associated with the delegation of powers to certain institutions; professional and non-professional activities; leading and executive activities aimed at strengthening this political system or, on the contrary, at its destruction; institutionalized or non-institutionalized activities (for example, extremism); systemic or non-systemic, etc. M. Weber, speaking about the composition of political activity, emphasized, first of all, the activity of maintaining order in the country, i.e., "existing relations of domination."
If we talk about the institutions that make up the political system, then the activity of each of them has natural features and, above all, different means of achieving them. Each political and social institution in its essence represents a certain system of activities.
The essence of political activity is revealed in the specifics of its object and structural elements: the subject, goals, means, conditions, knowledge, motivation, and, finally, the very process of activity.
The direct object of political activity is political values, institutions, the political system as a whole and the social groups, parties, elites, and leaders behind them.
The sphere of political activity does not include society as a whole, not social class relations in all possible aspects, but only the relations of society, social groups, classes, strata, elites to the institutions of political power and the latter to society.
The action of an individual acquires political meaning insofar as it is included in the system of social relations and is an element of group activity. There is another point of view on the content of political activity. According to M. Weber, political action (like any social action, can be understood based only on the behavior individual people.
Unlike other subjects of social action, the subject of political activity is characterized, first of all, by the fact that it always acts as an organized (in one form or another) social force. The political forces acting in a given situation, in a given political process, are always one way or another organized social groups, classes, strata, national communities, and finally, international associations (state unions, movements, etc.). Political action in any case is the action of groups of people (and not separate, disparate individuals), united by a certain common goal and guided by general rules"games". The highest form of organization of political activity are political institutions, including the state and political parties.
2) Political leadership. The unequal position of participants in political life in the political hierarchy is due to their varying degrees of proximity to power and the ability to make strategic decisions, as well as the ability to influence social change. Even within the elite, some of its representatives differ from others in their priority in their influence on society. A person who has a permanent and decisive impact on society, state, organization, is called a political leader. The tasks of leaders include the development of agreed development goals, the distribution of functions and roles among the participants in social interactions, the streamlining of the behavior of integral elements of the system in order to increase the efficiency of the functioning of society as a whole. Thus, the actual significance of the problem of leadership is connected with the search for effective forms of leadership and management of social processes.
Theories of leadership. Community leadership is social function, due to the ability of a person to consciously set generally significant goals and determine ways to achieve them within the framework of political institutions created for this. Specific forms and ways of exercising leadership depend on the cultural maturity of the society, the level of autonomy of various interest groups, and the awareness of the need for collective action to maintain progress. social system generally.
One can understand the phenomenon of leadership and its evolution by analyzing its components: 1) the character of the leader; 2) his political convictions; 3) motivation of political activity; 4) properties of his supporters and all political subjects interacting with him; 5) the specific historical situation when the leader came to power; 6) technology of leadership implementation. A holistic and multifaceted picture of the manifestation of leadership develops as society evolves, the complexity of social relationships that actualize the specific functions of a leader.
In primitive In societies, the functions of a leader are weak and are reduced mainly to ensuring the physical survival of community members. The leaders themselves appear as heroes endowed with special physical qualities and moral virtues. Thus, Plato portrayed the leader as a person who has an innate propensity for knowledge, distinguished by a resolute rejection of lies, a love of truth. According to his ideas, modesty, nobility, justice, generosity, spiritual perfection are inherent in the leader.
The ethical and mythological tradition in the analysis of political leadership retained its influence in the Middle Ages, introducing into it the idea that leaders were chosen by God, in contrast to mere mortals.
N. Machiavelli transferred the problem of political leadership from the realm of the imaginary and proper to the plane of real life. In the works "The Sovereign" and "Reflections on the First Decade of Titus Livius" he defined the nature, functions and technology of leadership. The character of the leader N. Machiavelli derived from the interaction of the ruler and subjects. A wise leader combines the qualities of a lion (strength and honesty) and the qualities of a fox (mystification and skillful pretense). Therefore, he has both innate and acquired qualities. By nature, a person is given less than he receives, living in society. He is straightforward, cunning or talented by birth, but ambition, greed, vanity, cowardice are formed in the process of socialization of the individual.
Dissatisfaction is the stimulus for active activity. The fact is that people always want more, but they can not always achieve this. The gap between the desired and the actual gives rise to a dangerous tension that can break a person, make him greedy, envious and insidious, since the desire to receive exceeds our strength, and opportunities are always lacking. As a result, there is dissatisfaction with what a person already owns. N. Machiavelli called this state of dissatisfaction. It is she who contributes to the transformation of the desired into reality.
The role of a leader in society is determined by the functions that he is called upon to perform. Among essential functions N. Machiavelli singled out the provision public order and stability in society; integration of heterogeneous interests and mobilization of the population for the solution of generally significant tasks. In general, N. Machiavelli's theory of leadership is built on four provisions (variables): 1) the leader's power is rooted in the support of his supporters; 2) subordinates must know what they can expect from their leader, and understand what he expects from them; 3) the leader must have the will to survive; 4) the ruler is always a model of wisdom and justice for his supporters.
Further leadership researchers Special attention focused on certain components of this multifaceted phenomenon: either on the traits and origin of the leader; or on the social context of his leadership, i.e. social conditions coming to power and exercising leadership; either on the nature of the relationship between the leader and his supporters; or the results of the interaction between the leader and his followers in certain situations. The emphasis in the analysis of leadership on a particular variable led to an ambiguous interpretation of this phenomenon and initiated the emergence of a number of theories that explored the nature of leadership. Among the most common and generally accepted theories of leadership are trait theory, situational analysis theory, situational personality theory, integrative leadership theory.
IN trait theories (C. Beard, E. Bogardus, Y. Jennings etc.), a leader is seen as a combination of certain psychological traits, the presence of which contributes to his promotion to leading positions and gives him the ability to make power decisions in relation to other people.
Trait theory arose in the early 20th century. influenced by the studies of the English anthropologist F. Galton, who explained the nature of leadership from the standpoint of heredity. The main idea of this approach is the assertion that if a leader has special qualities that distinguish him from supporters, then these qualities can be distinguished. These qualities are inherited.
higher officials are perceived as exceptional in the meanings of the dominant political culture and mentality, the population ascribes certain virtues to them. The psychological interpretation of leadership also focuses on the motivation of the leader's behavior. A manifestation of extreme psychologism in understanding the nature of leadership is the concept of psychoanalysis 3. Freud, who interpreted political leadership as a sphere of manifestation of repressed libido - an unconscious attraction of a sexual nature.
An analysis of the destructive type of political behavior with features of masochism and sadism was given by the American psychologist E. Fromm in his work “Necrophiles and Adolf Hitler”. Using the method of psychobiography, E. Fromm traced, starting from early childhood, the process of formation of the destructive political leadership of the leader of Nazi Germany.
However, the isolation of the phenomenon of leadership from the totality of psychological traits of a person or from his motivations and motives (conscious and unconscious) is not able to answer practical questions related to the characteristics of specific leaders.
The theory tried to overcome the psychological interpretation of leadership situational analysis , according to which the leader appears as a result of a confluence of circumstances of place, time, and others. In the life of a group, in various situations, separate individuals stand out who are superior to others in at least one quality. And since it is given quality demanded by the prevailing conditions, insofar as the person who possesses it becomes a leader. Situational Theory of Leadership considers the leader as a function of a certain situation, emphasizing the relativity of the traits inherent in the leader, and suggesting that qualitatively different circumstances may require qualitatively different leaders.
Attempts to avoid extremes in the interpretation of the phenomenon of leadership (either from the standpoint of the theory of traits, or within the framework of the theory of situational analysis) objectively required expanding the boundaries of the analysis of the factors that form leading positions and determine the content of power influence. These attempts led to the emergence of personality-situational theory. Her Supporters personality-situational theory (G. Gert and S. Mills) tried to overcome the shortcomings of the above theories. Among the variables of leadership, allowing to know its nature, they singled out four factors: 1) the traits and motives of the leader as a person; 2) the images of the leader and the motives that exist in the minds of his followers, prompting them to follow him; 3) characteristics of the leader's role; 4) legal and institutional conditions of its activity.
American political scientist Margaret J. Hermann expanded the number of variables that, in her opinion, allow to reveal the essence of leadership more deeply, including: 1) the main political beliefs of the leader; 2) the political style of the leader; 3) the motives that guide the leader; 4) the leader's reaction to pressure and stress; 5) the circumstances due to which the leader found himself in the position of leader for the first time; 6) previous political experience of the leader; 7) the political climate in which the leader began his political career.
Thus, political science has moved from one-sided psychologism in the analysis of leadership to a more holistic study of this phenomenon using sociological approaches.
The sociological interpretation of the nature of leadership focuses more on the analysis of the interaction between the leader and his followers. It allows you to identify the technology of effective leadership, to understand the logic of the political behavior of the leader.
Within the framework of the integrative approach, motivational concepts of leadership and theories that focus on the specifics of political styles have recently dominated. The latter direction makes it possible to reveal the predictability of the actions of a political leader and their possible effectiveness.
Despite the differences in the interpretation of leadership, in understanding its nature, it is seen as a permanent, priority influence of an individual on society or a group. This influence depends on a number of variables: on the psychological traits of the personality, on the nature of the relationship between the leader and his supporters, on the motivation leadership behavior and behavior of his supporters.
3) Typology of leaders and their functions. The manifestations of leadership are quite diverse. Attempts to classify and typify them are caused by the desire to predict the likely behavior of leaders on the basis of certain signs.
The typology of leadership based on the personal qualities of the leader and the specific situation in which he performs his functions was proposed by the German sociologist M. Weber in his work “Charismatic Domination”. As a classification feature, he put forward the concept of "authority", which he defines as "the probability that orders will meet obedience from a certain group of people." The ability to give orders and expect them to be carried out is based on various resources authorities. Accordingly, M. Weber identified three types of domination - traditional, rational-legal, charismatic.
Traditional Leadership relies on customs and traditions, the power of habit, which are rooted in the distant past. The habit of obedience is based on the belief in the sanctity of the tradition of transferring power by inheritance: the leader acquires the right to rule due to his origin. This is the type of authority that was once used by the leader of the tribe, the head of the clan, the monarch.
Charismatic Leadership is based on the belief in God's chosen personality, in the exceptional qualities of this person. Charismatic power, noted M. Weber, "is characterized by the personal devotion of subjects to a person and their faith only in his personality, which is distinguished by outstanding qualities, heroism or other distinctive properties that turn him into a leader." Charismatic leadership is inherent in transitional societies that are undergoing modernization, therefore charismatic domination can create conditions either for traditional power (for example, for a return to the institution of a monarchy), or for a rational-legal one. The peculiarity of charismatic power is that it is devoid of any objective grounds (for example, it does not rely on law, tradition), but exists due to the exclusively personal qualities of a charismatic leader, faith in him.
Rational legal leadership represents bureaucracy. The power of authority is recognized by virtue of "legality", by virtue of faith in the legitimacy legal status and "competence" based on rational established laws. Power is based on a single set of legal norms accepted by the whole society. The competence of each holder of power is determined by the constitution and legal norms.
One of the most modern and widespread typologies of leaders is M. Hermann's system, which classifies leaders based on their image. M. Hermann identifies four images of leaders based on four variables: the character of the leader; properties of his supporters; ways of interconnection between the leader and his supporters; specific situation in which leadership is exercised.
The first collective image of a leader is standard-bearer leader . He is distinguished by his own view of reality, the presence of an image of the desired future and knowledge of the means to achieve it. Such a leader determines the nature of what is happening, the pace and methods of transformation. The flag-bearing leaders include M. Gandhi, V.I. Lenin, Martin L. King and others.
The second collective image of the leader - servant leader. He achieves recognition through the expression of the interests of his adherents. The leader acts on their behalf, he is the agent of the group. In practice, the leader-servant is guided by what is expected of him, what his constituents believe and need (L.I. Brezhneva, K.U. Chernenko).
The third image leader-dealer. Its essential feature lies in the ability to convince. He achieves recognition from his supporters by knowing their needs, by the desire to satisfy them. Through the ability to persuade the leader-merchant involves adherents in the implementation of their plans. R. Reagan can be considered an example of this type of leader.
The fourth image firefighter leader. It is distinguished by a quick response to the urgent demands of the time, formulated by its supporters. He is able to act effectively in extreme conditions, quickly make decisions, adequately respond to the situation. Most leaders in modern societies can be attributed to this type.
The selection of four collective images of leaders is rather conditional, since such types are rarely found in their pure form. Most often, the leadership of one person at various stages of her political career combines certain properties of each of the listed ideal types.
Recently, classifications of leaders according to the style of behavior have dominated. Five political styles can be distinguished according to the degree of dominance of certain qualities: paranoid, demonstrative, compulsive, depressive and schizoid , although in history there are leaders who combine several styles.
Paranoid political style. It corresponds to the type of leader, which can be designated by the term "master". Such a person is characterized by suspicion, distrust of others, hypersensitivity to hidden threats and motives, a constant thirst for power, control over other people. His behavior and actions are often unpredictable. A paranoid-style politician does not accept a point of view other than his own, rejects any information that does not confirm his theories, attitudes and beliefs (I.V. Stalin, Ivan the Terrible).
Demonstrative political style characteristic of the type of leader who can be called an "artist", since he always "plays for the audience." He is distinguished by a love of demonstrations, he is seized by a passionate desire to please, to constantly attract attention to himself. In many ways, his behavior, political actions depend on whether others like him, whether he is loved by the crowd or not. As a result, he is quite “controllable”, predictable, and may lose his vigilance after hearing enough flatterers. However, he can lose his composure when faced with criticism (A.F. Kerensky, L.D. Trotsky, V.V. Zhirinovsky).
Compulsive political style usually characteristic of a leader whose collective image can be described by the term "excellent student". It is characterized by an almost obsessive desire to do everything in the best way, regardless of the possibilities. The style of his behavior is characterized by tension, lack of lightness, flexibility, maneuver. He is constantly preoccupied, petty, too punctual, dogmatically approaches all instructions, rules, which often causes conflicts in power structures. The “excellent student” feels especially uncomfortable in extreme conditions, when it is necessary to make decisions quickly and use non-standard methods. (L.I. Brezhnev).
Depressive political style represents "comrade-in-arms". A leader of this type is not able to play a leading role and therefore tries to unite with those who can really "make politics". "Companion" often idealizes individuals and political movements, while he himself lags behind events. It does not have a clear political course, sustainable approaches to solving emerging problems. Accepts political reality cautiously and pessimistically, revealing weakness and political lack of will (Nicholas II).
Schizoid political style closely associated with depression. It is represented by the leader - "loner". Self-isolation and self-withdrawal from participation in specific events are more pronounced. The "loner" does not want to join any particular movement and prefers the position of an outside observer. But political responsibility in this case is practically absent. The schizoid style of behavior is historically transient, less independent and ineffective. The “loner” leader, as he participates in political life and expands his powers, transforms his style, supplementing it with the features of a paranoid and demonstrative style. Such a change in the political style was characteristic of the political biography of V.I. Lenin (before the revolution of 1917 - "loner", and after it the features of "owner" and "artist" were added).
The indicated political styles, singled out as “ideal”, are quite rare, they act as trends. They are conditioned by the mentality and culture of society, which include stable ideas about the desired model of society and the role of the leader in it, about the preferred ways to solve emerging problems. Politics differ markedly due to the non-identity of the national cultures of different countries. The type of dominant culture also determines the nature of the political orientations characteristic of leaders.
Political relations defined as the interaction of social groups, individuals, social institutions about the organization and management of society. They arise from the moment when the eternal need for management and power regulation social processes and relations begins to be carried out with the active participation of the state.
The process of realizing political interests is continuous. At the level of everyday awareness, this process takes place in the form of the development of political knowledge, assessments, orientations, which, in turn, determine practical activities, social activity and citizenship.
To realize their fundamental interests through state (political) power, certain social groups create their own political parties.
Society's fundamental political interest lies in the constant development of democracy, in the consolidation and expansion of genuine democracy, the self-government of the people. In the mechanism of action of democracy, taking into account, capturing, and expressing the objectively determined interests of social groups is of particular importance. Here, much depends on the methods of identifying, coordinating and subordinating these interests. In addition, it is necessary to systematically clarify the extent to which general political interests are perceived by citizens as their own, and to what extent they become a source of behavior for specific individuals and groups. The complication of interests, the increase in their versatility in modern conditions, implies the constant improvement of those superstructural structures with the help of which political interests are taken into account and implemented.
Political participation and political activity as a form of realization of political interests can, with good reason, be considered as criteria for the development of the political organization of society.
A citizen in a democratic political system is distinguished by the manifestation of interest in politics, involvement in political discussions, participation in elections, the presence of certain knowledge of politics, competence, everything that is necessary to influence government activities. In general, these qualities can be summarized as activity, involvement, rationality. At the same time, these qualities are also inherent in a citizen in the system of a one-party dictatorship.
One form of participation is a system of representative democracy, in which representatives of the people exercise power on their behalf. Another form of participation of citizens in the system of power is through referendums, civil initiatives or the recall of deputies.
More on the topic Political relations and political practice.:
- INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS STUDIES IN RUSSIA: YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW
- §1. Development of theoretical foundations and features of the development of legal regulation of public relations in the context of the New Economic Policy
In political science, the transition from one type of political system to another is denoted by the terms “political development” or “political modernization.” Political modernization is an increase in the ability of the political system to adapt to new patterns of social goals and create new types of institutions that ensure the development of the social system. Modernization is conditioned by objective (socio-economic and cultural) and subjective (the ability of the political leadership to implement effective change political system) factors. Political modernization is a part of social modernization, when transformations take place in all major areas of the social system: economy, social sphere, culture, education, etc. The choice of modernization option begins in the political sphere - with the manifestation of political will to change . Consistently carried out political modernization serves as a factor, a guarantor of ensuring the consistency of modernization of other spheres of public life. The goals of modernization are aimed at achieving such social values as the economic growth, equality, democracy, stability, welfare, justice, order.
Allocate following goals political modernization:
– the creation of new political institutions to address the ever-expanding range of social and economic problems;
– change in the political orientations of the elite and leaders to an open struggle;
- the formation of a rational bureaucracy.
The main directions of modernization in modern world:
– processes of industrialization and informatization of society;
- the formation of an ecological society, the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies; - the democratization of society, the expansion of public participation in the management of public affairs, the responsibility of the authorities to society; - the focus social sphere in the direction of improving the well-being of the bulk of the population, overcoming the social gap between members of society; - ensuring the availability of education and its high quality, which guarantees the possibility of vigorous activity and success in a new, changing system of social relations;
- expansion of the sphere of human freedom, the growth of the possibility of choice and independence from the pressure of traditions, environment, place of residence.
There are two historical types of modernization. The first type, the so-called original modernization, is typical for the United States and countries Western Europe who made the transition to a rational social order as a result of a long natural internal development. The second type - secondary modernization - was typical for countries that lagged behind in their development and tried to catch up with the advanced ones at an accelerated pace by using the experience of developed countries. This group includes developing countries liberated from colonial dependence (countries South America, South-East Asia),
a 3 Currently, there are many international organizations in the world that resolve issues in all areas of the sphere of human life; both economic and political. The most acute problems today are war and peace, disarmament and resolution of military conflicts. The concern of states for their security led to the creation of military-political organizations. One of which was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO was created on April 4, 1949. NATO countries decided to join their efforts for collective defense, peace and security.
The main goal of NATO is to ensure the freedom and security of all members by political and military means in accordance with the principles of the UN. The NATO organization is called upon to ensure lasting peace in Europe and maintain a strategic balance throughout Europe. NATO members undertake to resolve all international disputes by peaceful means so as not to jeopardize international security. According to the NATO structure, an armed attack on one of the NATO members is considered an attack on all countries of the North Atlantic Treaty. These are the main provisions of the NATO Charter. Like any international organization NATO has its own structure.
The governing bodies of the bloc are the North Atlantic Council, the Defense Planning Committee, the Nuclear Planning Group, other committees, and the Secretary General. NATO's military structure consists of military committees, a standing military committee and an international military headquarters. NATO headquarters is located in Brussels. Currently, NATO includes 16 states: the USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Portugal, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Greece, Turkey, Spain, Germany. But Iceland does not have its own military forces and is not part of the military structure of NATO, it has only an observer status in the Defense Planning Committee. France in 1966 also withdrew from the NATO military structure.
21. Political activity as the basis of the political life of society. The political process consists of actions. political action defined as the intervention of an individual or group in the relations of power of a given system in order to adapt it to their interests, ideals and values. The activities of social groups or individuals are associated with the desire to improve or change the socio-economic and political order. Political actions orient the political system towards achieving certain goals that express the interests of various groups. These interests are clothed in a theoretical, ideological form. From what ideology the participants in the political process adhere to, whether their activities are aimed at revolutionary changes in society or at its reform. Political action is always performed "here" and "now", that is, in a specific situation. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the objective state of affairs, specific conditions, before starting to act. It is necessary to identify the specifics of each situation in order to choose the right methods and means of political action. The toolkit with which the situation is assessed is also important. It is reasonable to change our schemes and dogmas if political reality does not fit into them, because it is always richer than any schemes. Persons acting in politics must have a solid store of knowledge and be competent. In addition, they must creatively apply their knowledge in a given situation. Theory in politics makes sense when it can give an adequate answer to a specific problem. In any political system, there are certain norms, rules of the game that participants in the political process are required to comply with. As a rule, these norms are violated by those who want to change the political system through violence. However, in the case of gaining power, they establish their own norms of action, their own rules of the game. Yes, different positive political action to do something to achieve a particular goal, and negative , consisting in "stop doing something". The position of abstinence is not neutral, as it always has certain consequences. Political action can be described as rational and irrational . Rational action means that his agent has a clear understanding of the goals, knows methods adequate to these goals, is able to effectively apply them by setting a system of priorities, and is also able to change the strategy if it does not lead to the desired results. As for irrational political action, as a rule, it ends in failure due to the inability of politicians to link goals and means, a blind attitude to reality, which they consider in accordance with their dogmas and schemes. This is the soil of political illusions, which often lead to sad consequences for society. Political action can be seen as inertial and creative . Inertial actions reproduce the accepted norms of behavior, the existing political system, and preserve it. Creative actions bring changes, new moments, dynamics into politics. Political action can be spontaneous or organized . As a rule, the actions of the elites are more organized, which gives them the opportunity to maintain their dominance, develop strategies and tactics, and implement their plans. However, in any political action there may be a share of spontaneity, accident, inconsistency. Types of political action depend on the type of social transformations, on the attitude of political forces to reality. Revolution, rebellion, uprising, counter-revolution, peasant war have the maximum radius of action. Revolution represents the overthrow of the dominant groups, the transformation of society as a whole. counterrevolution is a political movement led by groups removed from power, their representatives, those who broke with the revolution. Riot- the result of the indignation of the masses by the actions of local authorities, which develops into disorder, pogroms. reforms lead to social change without undermining the foundations of the existing order and the power of the ruling class. Political upheavals lead to changes in the sphere of power, primarily personal, through the use of physical violence. Rallies, demonstrations, strikes, meetings, picketing, processions, etc. are examples of specific political actions. Elections and election campaigns, referendums, official visits of state and party delegations to other countries, diplomatic negotiations are special types of political actions.
22. In political science, the term "political participation" used to denote forms of political behavior of citizens. Political participation is considered as the involvement of members of a given community on an individual, class-group, national-ethnic, religious or other basis in the process of political and power relations. The participation of people in politics is one of the means of expressing and achieving their interests. Political participation makes it possible to reveal the real role of a citizen, individual strata, groups, classes, both at the local level and in the political system of society. If citizens take an active part in the formation of the elite, in determining the main goals of the policy, monitoring its implementation, then such a political system can be considered based on participation. Political participation is expressed in two main forms: straight(immediate) and indirect(representative). Direct participation takes place within the framework of small political communities, where the masses at meetings make decisions by majority vote. It is characteristic of local government and self-government exercised by citizens through local Councils of Deputies, bodies of territorial public self-government, local referendums, meetings and other forms of direct participation in state and public affairs. At indirect participation the masses elect their representatives to exercise political power. The larger the society, the fewer opportunities for self-government. Indirect participation gives more opportunities to distort the will of the masses, since elected representatives, deputies can pursue their own interests that do not coincide with the interests of those they represent. The masses may lose control over their representatives, and the degree of their political participation is reduced. One of the most The developed schemes of political participation include the following elements:
Reaction (positive or negative) to impulses emanating from the political system, not related to the need to participate in any action; - participation in delegation of powers (elections). This is electoral behavior; - participation in the activities of political and other organizations; - performance of political functions within the framework of state and other political institutions (including in parties, etc.). This function is implemented by professional politicians, officials, deputies, leaders and party functionaries; - direct actions (participation in rallies, demonstrations, etc.).
The types of participation are highly unequal. Some of them occupy a modest place in political life, others are highly developed, which makes it possible to judge the political culture of a particular society. Political participation can be directed against the actions and decisions of the authorities, expressing protest, indignation, rejection of this political line. political protest- this is a type of negative reaction of an individual (group) to the political situation that has developed in society or a specific action of individual state bodies and political opponents. Forms of political protest include such actions as political and civil disobedience, petitions, boycotts, property damage, sabotage, assassinations, kidnappings, terror, guerrilla actions, revolutions, wars. The level of political participation is influenced by such social factors as education, socio-economic status, age, gender, place of residence, profession, access to political information, socio-economic situation.
