structural division of a relatively homogeneous social whole or part of it into separate qualitatively different elements (parts, forms, levels, classes). Social differentiation signifies both the process of dismemberment and its consequences.
The creator of the theory of social differentiation is the English philosopher Spencer (late 19th century). He borrowed the term "differentiation" from biology, considering differentiation and integration as the main elements of the general evolution of matter from simple to complex at the biological, psychological and social levels. In his work Fundamentals of Sociology, G. Spencer developed the thesis that primary organic differentiations correspond to primary differences in the relative state of the parts of the organism, namely, “being from within”. Describing the primary differentiation, Spencer formulated two patterns of this process. The first is the dependence in the interaction of social institutions on the level of organization of society as a whole: a low level is determined by the weak integration of parts, a high level is determined by a stronger dependence of each part on all others. The second is an explanation of the mechanism of social differentiation and the origin of social institutions as a consequence of the fact that "in the individual, as in the social, the process of aggregation is constantly accompanied by the process of organization", and the latter is subject in both cases to one general law, which is that successive differentiation always proceeds from the more general to the more special, i.e. the transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous accompanies evolution. Analyzing the regulatory system, thanks to which the aggregate is able to act as a whole, Spencer comes to the conclusion that its complexity depends on the degree of differentiation of society.
The French sociologist E. Durkheim considered social differentiation as a consequence of the division of labor, as a law of nature, and linked the differentiation of functions in society with an increase in population density and the intensity of interpersonal ties.
The American sociologist J. Alexander, speaking about the importance of Spencer's idea for Durkheim regarding social transformation as a process of institutional specialization of society, noted that the modern theory of social differentiation is based on Durkheim's research program and significantly differs from Spencer's program.
The German philosopher and sociologist M. Weber considered social differentiation as a consequence of the process of rationalization of values, norms and relations between people.
S. North formulated four main criteria for social differentiation: by functions, by rank, by culture, by interests.
In the taxonomic interpretation, the concept of "social differentiation" is opposed by the concept of social differentiation of theorists of the sociology of action and supporters of systems approach(T. Parsons, N. Luhmann, Etzioni and others). They considered social differentiation not only as an initial state social structure, but also as a process that predetermines the emergence of roles and groups specializing in the performance of individual functions. These scholars clearly delineate the levels at which the process of social differentiation takes place: the level of society as a whole, the level of its subsystems, the level of groups, and so on. The starting point is the thesis that any social system can exist only on the condition that certain vital functions are realized in it. important features: adaptation to the environment, goal definition, regulation of internal teams (integration), etc. These functions can be performed by more or less specialized institutions and, in accordance with this, differentiation occurs. social system. With the intensification of social differentiation, actions become more specialized, personal and family ties give way to impersonal object relations between people, which are regulated with the help of generalized symbolic intermediaries. In such constructions, the degree of social differentiation plays the role of a central variable that characterizes the state of the system as a whole and on which other spheres of social life depend.
In most modern studies, the emergence of a new goal in the system is called the source of the development of social differentiation. The probability of the appearance of innovations in it depends on the degree of differentiation of the system. Thus, S. Eisenstadt proved that the possibility of the emergence of something new in the political and religious spheres is the higher, the more they are separated from each other.
The concept of "social differentiation" is widely used by supporters of the theory of modernization. Thus, F. Riggs sees in "diffraction" (differentiation) the most general variable in economic, political, social and administrative development. Researchers (in particular, the German sociologist D. Rüschsmeyer and the American sociologist G. Baum) note both positive (increasing the adaptive properties of society, expanding opportunities for personal development) and negative (alienation, loss of systemic stability, the emergence of specific sources of tension) the consequences of social differentiation.
Types of social groups.
Social differentiation
Reasons for differentiation:
1. private property
Social politics
Theory of stratification
Main stratification criteria
3. prestige
4. education
The social status of the individual and social roles.
Social status - This is the position of a person in society, occupied by him in accordance with age, sex, origin, profession, marital status. This is a certain position in the social structure of a group or society, associated with other positions through a system of rights and obligations.
The totality of all statuses occupied by one person is called status set .
One person has many statuses, as he participates in many groups and organizations. He is a man, father, husband, son, teacher, professor, doctor spider, middle-aged man, member of the editorial board, Orthodox, etc. One person can occupy two opposite statuses, but in relation to different people He is a father to his children and a son to his mother.
In the status set there must be main status. Main status name the most characteristic status for a given person, with which he is identified (identified) by other people or with which he identifies himself. The main thing is always the status that determines the style and way of life, the circle of acquaintances, the manner of behavior.
Social statuses are prescribed and acquired.
to the second - profession, education, etc. Some statuses are prestigious, others - vice versa.
Prestige - it is a public assessment social significance one status or another. This hierarchy is formed under the influence of two factors:
1. the real usefulness of those social functions that a person performs;
2. systems of values characteristic of a given society.
The social status of the individual, first of all, has an impact on her behavior.
The social role of the individual - it is a set of social functions learned and performed by a person and patterns of behavior corresponding to them. Social role - a behavioral model focused on this status. It can be defined differently - as a template type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and obligations assigned to a specific status.
Each person has not one, but a whole set of social roles that he plays in society.
Their collection is called role system (role set).
A social role is impossible without conditions such as:
1. expectations of group members functionally related to this status;
2. social norms that fix the range of requirements for fulfilling this role.
social mobility
A person who occupies a certain place in this structure has the ability to move from one level to another. Such a transition is called social mobility.
Kinds social mobility
A high rate of vertical social mobility with other equal conditions considered an important evidence of a democratic society.
Social elevators (channels of social mobility) are social mechanisms that allow people to move from one social stratum to another.
P. Sorokin (American sociologist of Russian origin) singled out:
1. Army (Napoleon)
2. Church (Patriarch Nikon)
3. School, education (Lomonosov)
Other channels of social mobility:
1. Family and marriage (Catherine the First)
2. Party activities (Stalin)
3. Media (Malakhov, Ksenia Sobchak)
The family is like a small group.
Family types
1. According to the related structure, there are:
extended families (multi-generational) which unite under one roof a married couple with children and one of the parents of a married couple
nuclear families - married couples with one or two children.
2. Scientists identify families full(two parents) and incomplete(where, for some reason, one of the parents or the parental generation is absent, and the children live with their grandparents).
3. Depending on the number of children, families are distinguished childless, one-child, few And large families.
4. According to the nature of the distribution of family responsibilities, according to how the issue of leadership is resolved in the family, two types of family are traditionally distinguished.
traditional, or patriarchal The family is dominated by the male. Such a family unites representatives of at least three generations under one roof. A woman is economically dependent on her husband, family roles are clearly regulated: the husband (father) is the earner and breadwinner, the wife (mother) is the housewife and educator of children.
To the characteristics partner, or egalitarian, family (family of equals) include a fair, proportional distribution of family responsibilities, the interchangeability of spouses in solving everyday issues, the discussion of major problems and the joint adoption of decisions important for the family, as well as the emotional richness of relationships. Social psychologists especially note this particular feature, thereby emphasizing that only in a partner-type family can we talk about mutual respect, mutual understanding and emotional need for each other.
5. By employment in social production:
single-pit model(in a traditional society, the father was engaged in social production, the mother was engaged in housekeeping)
two-pit model
Family Functions
Under family functions is understood as its activity, which has certain social consequences.
1. reproductive function associated with the biological reproduction of members of society.
2. The new generation that replaces the old one must master social roles, gain accumulated knowledge, experience, moral and other values. This manifests itself educational function.
3. Economic function covers various aspects of family relations: maintaining household and family budget the organization of family consumption and the problem of the distribution of domestic labor; support and care for the elderly and disabled.
4. The family helps a person to find peace and confidence, creates a sense of security and psychological comfort, provides emotional support and maintains overall vitality (emotional-psychological function). Scholars specifically talk about recreational function, which includes spiritual and aesthetic moments, including the organization of spending free time.
5. In addition, the family provides its members with a social status, thereby contributing to the reproduction of the social structure of society. (socio-status function).
6. The family regulates people's sexual behavior by determining who can have sex with whom and under what circumstances. (sexual function).
Youth as a socio-demographic age group
Sociologists refer to the youth of people aged 16 to 25 years. Age boundaries are determined by specific historical conditions, the socio-economic situation, and therefore can be mobile.
The transition from youth to maturity is characterized by criteria
The main features of the youth subculture
1. challenging adult values and experimenting with your own lifestyle
2. inclusion in various peer groups (informal youth groups)
3. peculiar tastes, especially in clothes, music
4. cult of power, radicalism
5. it is rather a cult of leisure than work (some representatives of the older generation believe that a significant part of today's youth does not live, but lives, does not work, but earns extra money, does not do, but pretends to do)
6. openness to innovation
Social features youth
1. mastering new professions. Pattern: the newer the profession, the younger the age of its representatives
2. development of new territorial production complexes. The territorial mobility of young people is 5 times higher than that of other age groups (examples: development of virgin lands, BAM)
3. cultural and intellectual mobility. Young people are the most active consumer of the latest scientific knowledge.
ethnic communities. Nations and international relations
Ethnos (Greek - people) - a set of people with a common language, culture, aware of their historical unity. In the modern world there are at least two thousand different ethnic groups.
Forms of ethnic groups:
in primitive times - a tribe
in antiquity and the Middle Ages - nationality
V modern times, the most developed and stable community is the nation
A nation is an autonomous ethnic community, not limited by territorial boundaries, whose members are committed to common values and institutions. Representatives of one nation no longer have a common ancestor and a common origin. They do not have to have a common language, religion, but the nationality uniting them was formed thanks to a common history and culture.
The nation arises in the period of the birth of capitalism. During this period, classes, an internal market and a single economic structure, their own literature and art were formed. On the basis of a common territory, language and economy, a single national character and mental warehouse is formed. There is a very strong sense of solidarity with one's nation. National patriotic and national liberation movements, ethnic strife, wars and conflicts arise as a sign that a nation has been formed and is fighting for its sovereignty.
Nation signs:
1. common territory;
2. common language;
3. community of economic life;
4. common features of the mental warehouse;
5. national professional culture;
6. national identity. Awareness by the individual of himself as an integral part of the nation, participation in the common historical fate and culture of the nation, feelings for its past, present and future, orientation towards the goals and values of national development.
How to determine the nationality of a person? national identity.
Nationality is a private (personal) matter of the citizens themselves. Constitution of the Russian Federation, art. 25, paragraph 1: “Everyone has the right to determine and indicate their nationality. No one can be forced to determine and indicate their nationality"
Nationalism and chauvinism
Nationalism is an ideology, the essence of which is the preaching of the peculiarities and / or exclusivity of one's people, the priority of national values, etc.
The extreme form of nationalism is chauvinism, preaching the exclusivity of one's own nation, opposing the interests of one's own nation to the interests of other nations, inciting national enmity and hatred.
Interethnic relations
Interethnic relations have always been distinguished by their contradictory nature - the gravitation towards cooperation and periodic conflicts.
Causes of interethnic conflicts:
1. territorial disputes;
2. historical tensions between peoples;
3. the policy of discrimination pursued by the dominant nation;
4. attempts by national political elites to use national feelings for their own popularity;
5. the desire of peoples to create their own statehood (SEPARATISM)
When resolving these conflicts, it is necessary to observe the humanistic principles of policy in the field of national relations:
1. rejection of violence and coercion;
2. search for consent based on the consensus of all participants;
3. recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value;
4. readiness for a peaceful settlement of disputed problems.
Trends in the development of nations
The nature of national relations is determined by two interrelated trends:
| differentiation | integration |
| Each nation strives for self-development, for the preservation of national identity, language and culture. These aspirations are realized in the process of their differentiation, which can take the form of a struggle for national self-determination and the creation of an independent national state. | On the other hand, the self-development of nations under conditions modern world impossible without their close interaction, cooperation, exchange cultural property, overcoming alienation, maintaining mutually beneficial contacts. The trend towards integration is intensifying due to the need to solve global problems facing humanity, with success scientific and technological revolution. It must be borne in mind that these trends are interrelated: the diversity of national cultures does not lead to their isolation, and the convergence of nations does not mean the disappearance of differences between them. |
National politics
National policy - a set of measures of all branches authorities in the field of national relations.
National policy differs in goals, direction, based on the priorities of the state policy.
| Goals, direction of the inhumane totalitarian policy | Aims and content of democratic national policy |
| 1. upholding the so-called ethnic "purity" 2. inciting racial hatred 3. violence in the interests of domination of one's state. These goals are realized by laws, organization and encouragement of appropriate group behavior. Fascism is the most misanthropic expression of this anti-democratic policy. | 1. legislative consolidation of a respectful attitude towards people of all nationalities, ethnic groups to their self-consciousness, identity, 2. creation of the most favorable conditions for the free development of all peoples, 3. harmonization of national interests, 4. warning and humane resolution ethnic conflicts. State, democratic parties help ensure that these goals are shared by the population of the country. |
The main principles of the state national policy in Russia are as follows:
1. equality of rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen, regardless of his race, nationality, language, attitude to religion, membership in social groups and public associations;
2. prohibition of any form of restriction of the rights of a citizen on the grounds of social, racial, national, linguistic or religious affiliation;
3. preservation of the historical integrity of the country, equality of all subjects of the federation, guarantee of the rights of indigenous peoples;
4. everyone's right citizen determine and indicate their nationality;
5. promoting the development of national cultures and languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation;
6. timely and peaceful resolution of contradictions and conflicts;
7. prohibition of activities aimed at undermining the security of the state, inciting social, racial, national and religious discord, hatred or enmity;
8. protecting the rights and interests of Russian citizens abroad, supporting compatriots living in foreign countries in the preservation and development of their native language, culture and national traditions, in strengthening their ties with their homeland
social structure Russian society
Causes of conflicts
1. the possession by one of the parties of tangible and intangible (power, information) values, while the other side is either completely deprived of them or does not have enough of them. At the same time, it is not excluded that the predominance may be imaginary.
2. incompatibility of worldview attitudes and evaluative positions of various social groups (classes, estates, strata) of society;
3. misunderstanding of each other by people; differences in views and the imposition of the opinion of one of the parties, the psychological incompatibility of people
4. increased irritability, an overestimated level of claims (in interpersonal conflicts)
Types of conflicts
1. Depending on the spheres of human activity in which conflicts occur, they are divided into
Family
Labor
Political
ethnic
2. In terms of scale and volume, they include
Interpersonal conflicts when the interests of individuals collide;
Conflicts between small and large social groups:
International conflicts arising between individual states and their coalitions.
3. By the nature of development:
Deliberate
Spontaneous.
Stages of conflict
Pre-conflict stage This is the period during which contradictions accumulate.
Direct conflict stage is a set of specific actions. It is characterized by a clash of opposing sides.
On post-conflict stage measures are being taken to finally eliminate the contradictions
Types of social groups.
A) in terms of numbers - large (nations, estates) and small (family, school class)
B) according to the method of organizing and regulating behavior - formal (production team) and informal (bikers, emo)
Reasons for grouping people together:
1. groups help achieve common goals
2. groups allow you to satisfy psychological and other problems
3. group membership contributes to the formation of a positive "I-concept"
Social differentiation is the division of society into groups occupying different social status and differing in scope and nature of rights, privileges and duties, prestige and influence.
Types of differentiation, their manifestations
It should be noted that with the development of society, its social structure becomes more complicated. Also, connections and relationships between people are becoming deeper and more complex.
Reasons for differentiation:
1. private property
2. the complexity of modern society, the need for a division of labor
3. different abilities, psychological characteristics of people
Social politics
Social policy is a set of measures aimed at meeting the material and spiritual needs of a person, as well as ensuring the social protection of citizens in need of special care from the state.
Social policy is designed to mitigate social inequality.
Traditional destinations social policy is:
1. organization of pension provision and social insurance, medical service;
2. material and consumer services for the disabled and other categories of people in need of social protection citizens (students, temporarily unemployed, orphans, etc.);
3. promoting the employment of citizens.
Theory of stratification
on the course "Natural Science"
on the topic "Social differentiation of society"
1. Social stratification
The theories of social stratification and social mobility are based on the concepts of social differentiation and social inequality. Sometimes these concepts are identified, but it should be noted that the concept of "social differentiation" is broader in scope and includes any social differences, including those not related to inequality. For example, some people are football fans and others are not. This occupation acts as a differentiating quality, but will not be a sign of social inequality. Social inequality is a form of social differentiation in which individual individuals, social groups, strata, classes occupy a certain position in the hierarchy of social statuses, have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet needs.
The idea of social equality is one of the great and most attractive myths of mankind. In reality, there was not and is not a single complex society in which social equality would exist. Moreover, it is social differences and social inequality that ensure the development of mankind as a whole. At the same time, a significant level of social inequality is completely unacceptable. The main problem is to constantly find a ratio acceptable to society and its constituent individuals between the degree of inevitable social inequality and people's ideas about social justice.
If among the members of a society there are both haves and have-nots, then such a society is characterized by the presence of economic stratification. No, labels, signs are not able to change the fact of inequality, which is expressed in the difference in income, living standards. If within a group there are rulers and ruled; this means that such a group is politically differentiated. If members of a society are divided into different groups according to the nature of their activities, occupations, and some professions are considered more prestigious in comparison with others, then such a society is professionally differentiated. These are the three main forms social stratification. As a rule, they are closely intertwined. People who belong to the highest stratum in one respect usually belong to the same stratum in other respects, and vice versa, although there are exceptions.
The very term "stratification" of Latin origin, borrowed from geology, means "layering, stratification" in translation. Social stratification is a set of social groups arranged hierarchically according to the criteria of social inequality and called strata. There are many such criteria. K. Marx brought to the fore the possession of property and the level of income. M. Weber added social prestige, belonging of the subject to political parties, to power. P. Sorokin called the cause of stratification the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties in society, in addition - citizenship, occupation, national, religious affiliation. He proposed the following stratification division of society:
the highest layer of professional administrators;
mid-level technicians;
commercial grade;
petty bourgeoisie;
technicians and workers performing managerial functions;
skilled workers;
unskilled workers.
There are many other variants of the stratification division of society. In recent years, the six-layer hierarchy of modern Western society has become most widespread:
Top class:
the upper stratum of the upper class (hereditary wealth, up to 1% of the population);
the lowest stratum (earned wealth, up to 4% of the population);
Middle class:
the upper stratum (highly paid representatives of mental labor and business people, from 15 to 25% of the population);
the lowest layer ("white collars", managers, engineering and technical workers - up to 40% of the population);
Lower class:
the upper stratum (manual workers - 20 - 25% of the population);
the lowest stratum (lumpen, unemployed - 5-10% of the population).
There is social inequality between the strata, which cannot be overcome. The main way to reduce social tension is the ability to move from one stratum to another
2. Social mobility
The concept of social mobility was introduced into scientific circulation by P. Sorokin. Social mobility is a change in the place occupied by a person or a group of people in the social structure of society. The more mobile a society is, the easier it is to move from one stratum to another, the more stable it is, according to supporters of the theory of social stratification.
There are two main types of social mobility - vertical and horizontal. Vertical mobility involves movement from one stratum to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there is upward vertical mobility (social uplift, upward movement) and downward vertical mobility (social descent, downward movement). Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demolition is an example of downward mobility. With a vertical type of mobility, a person can make both rises, for example, from a cashier to a bank manager, and falls. An entrepreneur can lose part of his fortune, move to a group of people with lower incomes. Having lost a qualified job, a person may not find an equivalent job and, in connection with this, lose some of the features that characterize his former social status. Horizontal mobility involves the movement of a person from one group to another, located at the same level, on the same step. With this type of mobility, a person, as a rule, retains the main features of the group, for example, a worker moved to work in another enterprise, retaining the salary level and the same rank, or moved to another city; the same in terms of the number of inhabitants, etc. Social movements also lead to the emergence of intermediate, boundary layers, which are called marginal.
"Social elevators" with the help of which movements are carried out, first of all, are the army, the church, the school. Additional "social lifts" include the media, party activities, the accumulation of wealth, marriage to members of the upper class.
3. social control and social responsibility
The concept of responsibility in a broad sense is characterized in science as a social relationship between individual subjects (a person, a group, etc.) and those who control their behavior. It can be control of one's own conscience, public opinion or the state. Social responsibility can be defined as one of the aspects of the relations of participants in public life, characterizing the relationship of an individual, society and the state, individuals among themselves and including the subject's awareness of the social significance of his behavior and its consequences, his duty to act within the requirements of social norms governing social relations. Applied to individual person Responsibility is the obligation and readiness of the subject to be responsible for the committed actions, deeds and their consequences. Responsibility for an individual is formed as a result of the requirements that society imposes on him, the social group in which he is included. The requirements realized by the individual become the basis for the motivation of his behavior, which is regulated by conscience, a sense of duty. The formation of a personality involves cultivating a sense of responsibility in it, which becomes its property. Responsibility is manifested in the actions of a person and covers the following questions: is a person able to fulfill the requirements at all, to what extent he correctly understood and interpreted them, can he foresee the consequences of his actions for himself and society, is he ready to accept sanctions in case of violations. Responsibility must be approached on the basis of the organic unity of rights and obligations, taking into account the place individuals and groups of people occupy in the system, social connections. The wider the public powers and the real possibilities of individuals, the higher the measure of their responsibility.
Depending on the content of social norms, moral, political, legal and other types of social responsibility are distinguished. Sanctions are different in case of violation of certain norms. For example, in the absence of moral responsibility, violation of moral norms, the so-called informal negative sanctions are applied: censure, remark, ridicule. Social responsibility is not only responsibility individuals, but also the responsibility of the state, all subjects of the political system of society for the obligations assumed, which is the essence of political responsibility. The main sanctions in case of non-fulfillment by politicians of their obligations are non-election for the next term, criticism by the public, in the media. A specific feature of legal liability is a clear definition in the law of the subjects, content, types, forms and mechanisms of implementation. The basis of legal liability is the commission of an offense. Depending on the nature of the offense, the types of legal liability are determined: criminal, administrative, disciplinary, civil law.
4. social conflict and ways to solve it
The social heterogeneity of society, differences in income levels, prestige, access to power are a source of social tension. Social tension often develops into conflict. Social conflict is a clash of opposing goals, positions, opinions and views of the subjects of social interaction. Every society, every social group, social community is subject to conflicts to one degree or another. The wide spread of this phenomenon and the heightened attention to it by society and scientists contributed to the emergence of a special "branch of sociological knowledge - conflictology.
Marxist sociologists are of the opinion that conflict is a temporary state of society that can be overcome by rational means and, therefore, it is possible to achieve a level of social development when social conflicts disappear. Most sociologists of non-Marxist orientation believe that the existence of a society without conflicts is impossible. They believe that conflict is integral part being, the main engine of social development. The conflict, in their opinion, is a necessary element of social life, which gives an outlet for social tension, the energy of activity, generating social change different scale. Another thing is that the conflict should not be allowed to escalate excessively, because this can lead to catastrophic consequences.
Marxist sociologists bring economic factors to the fore as the causes of social conflicts. One of the creators of modern conflictology, the German sociologist R. Dahrendorf put political factors at the basis of social conflicts: the struggle for power, prestige, authority. P. Sorokin pointed out the connection between the conflict and the satisfaction of people's needs. At the same time, he emphasized that it is not the needs in themselves that are important, but also the means of satisfying them, access to the relevant types of activities, which is due to the social organization of society.
Usually, 4 stages are distinguished in a social conflict: pre-conflict, conflict, conflict resolution and post-conflict. In turn, each of these stages can be divided into a number of phases. The pre-conflict stage after the latent phase of the development of the conflict ends with an incident, some external event, which is an occasion that sets the conflicting parties in motion. The second, main stage of the conflict is characterized by conflict behavior, i.e. actions aimed at directly or indirectly blocking the achievement by the opposing side of its goals, intentions, interests. The resolution of the conflict is carried out both through a change in the objective situation, and through a subjective, psychological restructuring, a change in the subjective image of the situation that has developed among the warring parties.
Modern conflictology has formulated the conditions under which a successful resolution of social conflicts is possible. First, it is a timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict. Secondly, it is a mutual interest in overcoming contradictions on the basis of mutual recognition of the interests of each of the parties. The third, indispensable condition is the joint search for ways to overcome the conflict. Here it is possible to use a whole arsenal of means and methods: direct dialogue between the parties, negotiations through an intermediary, negotiations with the participation of a third party, etc. The final, post-conflict stage is of great importance. At this stage, efforts must be made to finally eliminate the contradictions of interests, goals, attitudes of the warring parties, and the socio-psychological tension between them must be eliminated.
Since conflicts are inevitable in our lives, we need to learn how to manage them, strive to ensure that they lead to the least cost for society and the individuals involved.
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Social differentiation is the division of society into groups occupying different social positions and differing in the scope and nature of rights, privileges and duties, prestige and influence. Types of differentiation Economic: - Level of income; - Standard of living; - Poor, rich, middle strata Political: - Governing and ruled; - political leaders and mass Professional: - Professions; - Type of activity and occupation; - Prestigious and non-prestigious professions, occupations
Social groups are relatively stable aggregates of people who have their own interests, values and norms of behavior that develop within the framework of a historically defined society. Social groups Large ____________________________ - Estates - Classes - Social strata - Ethnic communities - Professional groups - Other. Small (direct contact of its members) __________________________ - Family - Classroom- Dr.
Estates are large groups of people that differ in rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. Estates of ancient societies Estates of medieval society Higher or noble Lower or ignoble Clergy Nobility (knights or horsemen) Third estate (citizens) Modern social differentiation Class theory Stratification theory
Signs of classes according to V. I. Lenin (“Great Initiative”) Classes are called large groups of people who differ: By place in the system of social production In relation to the means of production By role in public organization labor According to the methods of obtaining and the size of the disposable social wealth main feature
Main classes in socio-economic formations Primitive communal formation Slave-owning formation Feudal formation Capitalist formation Communist formation socialism communism Society without classes Slave owners and slaves Feudal lords and dependent peasants Bourgeoisie (capitalists) and proletariat Working class and peasantry Society without classes Exploiters and exploited (another point of view)
The theory of the emergence of classes, biological, distributive, organizational and technical violence, Marxist-Leninist Classes exist due to the age-old biological or psychological inequality of people, biologically inferior inevitably fall into submission to the strong, elected Classes exist due to various sources and amounts of income received (rent, profit, wages) Classes exist due to the division of people into "organizers" and "performers!", i.e., due to their different roles in the social organization of labor. The division of society into classes occurred as a result of political, military violence. Class division is the result of the appearance (in various ways) private property which leads to property inequality
Strata - social strata that differ: By level and sources of income; By level of education; by profession; According to living conditions; By involvement in power structures; In relation to property; By social prestige; By self-assessment of one's position in society; By quality of life. At the core: social distribution of the results of labor (i.e., social benefits). Theory of stratification
Upper upper class - chief executives of national corporations, co-owners of prestigious firms, senior officials, federal judges, archbishops, stockbrokers, medical luminaries, major architects Upper class - general manager of a medium firm, mechanical engineer, newspaper publisher, doctor in private practice, practicing lawyer , College Teacher Upper Class
Upper middle class - bank teller, community college teacher, middle manager, high school teacher Middle middle class - bank teller, dentist, teacher elementary school, factory shift supervisor, insurance company clerk, supermarket manager, skilled carpenter Lower middle class – auto mechanic, hairdresser, bartender, grocer, skilled worker physical labor, hotel clerk, postal worker, police officer, truck driver
What professions, positions and occupations are the most profitable? This question experts All-Russian Center 1,600 residents of Russia were asked to study public opinion (the results are given as a percentage of the total number of respondents). Rating of professions in Russia according to the results of public opinion in 2000
Banker - 39.90 Criminal "authority" - 28.39 Pop star - 22.50 Deputy - 21.70 Minister - 15.39 Lawyer - 14.39 Governor - 13.50 Entrepreneur - 13, 39 Politician - 11.00 Prostitute - 9, 19 Photo model - 8.00 Image maker, election specialist - 3, 79 Doctor - 3.09 Occupation rating in Russia according to the results of public opinion in 2000 Priest - 2, 29 Artist - 2, 09 Journalist - 1, 79 Farmer - 1.39 Policeman - 1.29 Security officer - 1.20 Beggar - 1.10 Teacher - 0.89 Scientist - 0.89 Writer - 0.60 Sportsman - 0.50 Skilled worker - 0.50 Army officer - 0.10
Middle class ( different approaches to definition) Western Europe: belonging is determined by the presence of savings USA: belonging is determined by the presence of debts, i.e. received loans A high level of consumption (certain products, services, cars, etc.) People who have already abandoned hopes for the state, that someone will help them. They rely on their own strengths, capabilities and resources. They have a fundamentally different attitude to life, work and family. A good financial and economic situation, measured not only by income, but also by property and savings. High educational level, professional status, position in the labor market. Self-Identification (People identify themselves as middle class because they feel that way)
Features of the middle class in Russia The middle class is extremely diverse: a small businessman, a bank clerk, a professor working on an international grant, a manager, etc. One can speak of the middle classes. The backbone of the middle class is made up of officials and managers - 60% (in the West - entrepreneurs). The share of small entrepreneurs in the Russian middle class is only 3%. Only where, in the composition of the population, the averages have a preponderance over both extremes or over one of them, can the state system count on stability .... Aristotle States without a middle class are condemned to eternal nonentities. V.G. Belinsky
Feudal lords are large landowners. In Russia they are called landowners. Social categories (general concepts) feudal lords peasants Spiritual (clergy class) Secular (noble class) As a class of feudal society (dependent or serfs) As professional group(land workers, landowners)
The bourgeoisie is a class of owners of the means of production who use hired labor. Social categories (general concepts) Bourgeoisie by type of activity Industrial ____________ These are the owners of manufactories, factories, plants, and other enterprises Trading ____________ This is the merchant class Financial __________ These are the owners of banks and valuable papers Rural _______________ These are the owners of the land. In Russia they are called kulaks (kurkuly)
The proletariat (from the Greek "proles" - deprived of everything) - hired workers. Social categories (general concepts) social term economic
Differences between the proletariat and the working class Characteristics of classes Proletariat Working class Place in the system of social production Subordinate (exploited class) Dominant (class friendly to the peasantry) Relationship to the means of production Deprived of the means of production under capitalism Owns the means of production under socialism Role in the social organization of labor Performer, direct producer Organizer , performer, producer Methods of obtaining and size of disposable social wealth By cost work force. A small part of the national income By work. Corresponding part of the national income
The intelligentsia is a social stratum, a stratum of people of intellectual labor. Distinctive features of intellectuals Having an education Lack of property The main condition for existence is mental labor intelligentsia Humanitarian Scientific Engineering and technical Creative Military
Outcasts - a social stratum of people who have fallen out of their traditional social environment (temporarily or permanently). Marginalization Negative ___________________________ PhD cleans snow; a physicist sells mayonnaise; other cases Positive ______________________ Candidate of Science – manager; a physicist who graduated from courses in floriculture; other cases
Lumpens (paupers) are people without a fixed place of residence, without a permanent income, without a permanent occupation. Social mobility is the movement of people from one social group to another. Social groups (social strata) Declassed elements Military personnel, students, schoolchildren, students, pensioners, disabled people, women, youth, single mothers, etc. Criminals, drug addicts, alcoholics, prostitutes, homeless people, etc.
Social mobility Horizontal _________________________ This is a transition to a group of the same level _____________________________ Transfer from one job to another, remarriage, other cases Vertical _________________________ This is a transition from one step of the social hierarchy (ladder) to another Climb ________________ From a worker to a factory owner, other cases Descent _________________ From the owner of the plant to the hired manager, other cases The higher the social mobility, the more open the society.
Social elevators are social mechanisms that move people from one social stratum to another. Social elevators, according to P. Sorokin (American sociologist of Russian origin) Army (G.K. Zhukov, Napoleon, J. Washington, O. Cromwell) Church (Patriarch Nikon, Pope Gregory VII) School (education) - M.V. Lomonosov, M. Luther Media (A. Kashpirovsky, A. Razin) Party or social activity(A. Hitler, I.V. Stalin) Marriage with representatives of the upper class (P. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova, Catherine II) New channels of social mobility (additional social lifts)
Social structure is the internal structure of society, a set of interconnected and interacting human communities and relations between them. social relations- diverse connections between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them, in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activity. The nomenklatura is a privileged, dominant and ruling, exploiting class that exercises dictatorship in hierarchical societies and owns collective property. Bureaucracy is a special social group of officials exercising state power.
Elite - the highest, privileged layer (layers) of the social structure of society, carrying out state, socio-economic and cultural policy. Elite Types of elites Political - exercises power and organizes public administration Economic - influences the authorities with material capabilities, participates in decision-making Intellectual - develops science and culture, has an ideological and moral influence on the authorities
In relation to modern society in sociology, three main classes are usually distinguished - the highest, the middle and the lowest. At the same time, the distribution of the population by these levels occurs on the basis of multiple criteria, where property, prestige, power, and education are among the basic factors. The significance of each of the bases of stratification, as a rule, is determined by the values and norms prevailing in society, social institutions and ideological attitudes (for example, if freedom is highly valued in modern Western society, then, accordingly, what it provides, i.e. material independence, high income etc.).
However, in reality there can be much more layers than these three, which are conditionally distinguished as the main ones. Each of them, in turn, can be stratified into many subclasses and subgroups.
Indicative in this regard is the stratification model of the American sociologist W. Warner, widely known in sociological science since the 1930s, in which he identifies six main strata, or classes, in relation to American society:
- 1. The upper upper class - rich people with noble origins, major politicians. These are "aristocrats by blood", with a special way of life, impeccable taste and behavior.
- 2. The lower upper class - people of high income - owners of big capital (the new rich), military leaders, professors, as well as outstanding athletes, movie or pop stars who receive large fees.
- 3. The upper middle class - highly educated people engaged in scientific or prestigious work: prominent lawyers, doctors, actors or television commentators, university professors. They are called "golden collars".
- 4. The lower middle class - the so-called "white collars" - is the largest stratum of an industrialized society: office workers, medium-paid professionals, managers, teachers, middle-level teachers and even highly skilled workers.
- 5. The upper lower class - mainly the so-called "blue collar" - medium and low-skilled workers employed in mass production, at local factories. They live in relative prosperity, but are poorly educated, have passive leisure and primitive entertainment, use profanity and often drink excessively.
- 6. The lower underclass - the unemployed or those who live casually, temporary work, lumpenized segments of the population: inhabitants of slums, basements, attics.
Returning to the three levels of the position of the population in society identified by most sociologists, it should be noted that their characteristics in the bulk coincide. Thus, the upper class (or elite) is always small in number and concentrates material, financial and political resources in its hands. The opposite position is occupied by the lower layer. If the bulk of the population is in this position, this means that in such a society there is a high level of social inequality.
In countries with developed market economy(e.g. countries Western Europe, USA, Japan) the model of the social structure of society, according to experts, looks like a rhombus (“lemon”, “egg”): with a developed central part (middle strata), relatively small poles of the upper class (elite) and groups of the poorest strata. Approximately 60-80% of the population belongs to the middle class (Fig. 2.).
Rice. 2.
Rice. 3.
The social structure of many Eastern European countries is characterized by the figure of a pyramid pressed to the ground, where the majority of the population (80%) is “pressed” down, the rich make up its top (3-5%), and the middle class is extremely small (about 15%).
A similar picture is emerging in the countries of the former USSR zone. As the analysis of the largest CIS economies of the post-Soviet space - Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan - showed, the vast majority of the population in these countries belongs to the category of the most needy and low-income strata, and medium- and high-income citizens either constitute a minority or are statistically absent (such a conclusion sociologists and statisticians do on the basis of the analysis of national reports on incomes and living wages) (Fig. 3.).
A similar pyramidal model is seen by specialists in relation to developing countries, for example, the Latin American model of social structure resembles the Eiffel Tower, where the wide base is represented by the poorest layers, the elongated middle part - by the middle layers and the top - by the elite.
As the experience of developed countries shows, inequality in the distribution of income decreases over time.
According to the hypothesis of the American sociologist G. Lenski, the level of social inequality decreases due to social development. The eras of slavery and feudalism were characterized by deep inequality. Lenski saw a lesser degree of inequality in relation to an industrial society, which he explained by a lower concentration of power among managers, the presence of democratic governments, the struggle for influence between trade unions and entrepreneurs, high level social mobility and a developed system social security, which raises standard of living the poor to certain acceptable standards.
How is social inequality measured? In world practice, there are various units for measuring social inequality: Gini inequality coefficient, Theil index, decile income inequality coefficient and others. Among them, it is widely used decile income inequality ratio(or income differentiation coefficient), which characterizes the degree of stratification of society and shows the ratio of the average income level of the richest 10% of citizens to the average income level of the poorest 10%. The higher the value of the DCND, the higher the level of inequality in society.
For 2010, the value of DKND was: in the Scandinavian countries -1:3-5, in the European Union - 1:5-8, in Japan and North Africa - 1:6, in the USA - 1:10-15, in Latin America- 1:30, in Africa -1:50.
In Russia, according to the data given in the journal "Problems of Statistics" for 2002, since 1991 in the Russian Federation, DCND has regularly increased to 19 and even to 25 (with a norm of up to 10!). Today, according to the official data of the State Statistics Committee, the DNPC in Russia is 1:14-15, and, according to a number of sociologists, it is 1:30-40. For comparison: in the USSR, this indicator was in the range from 3.5 to 4.5; in tsarist Russia, according to approximate estimates, DKND reached 25-30.
The rule, when DC reaches 10, then conditions for social unrest are created in the country, does not apply in the USA - there this level of differentiation is considered normal in accordance with the prevailing liberal values among most Americans.
Who is considered poor? In world, including Russian, scientific practice, the definition of poverty is characterized by its ambiguity. It is understood as a certain level of income, and low monetary incomes, and the absence of other economic resources, and the inability to maintain perceived as "normal" lifestyle standards. In the most general sense poverty is a trait economic situation individual or social group, in which they are unable to satisfy a certain range of their minimum needs for existence. At the same time, poverty is a relative concept and depends on the general standard of living in a given society.
In the West, poverty is most often measured on the basis of living wage, with the help of which the poverty line is set - the level of average per capita income. At the same time, the poverty line is set through the ability to meet the basic material needs, for which you should choose the minimum number of necessary goods, and then determine their cost.
In the European Union, on the one hand, those citizens are considered poor whose income (including social benefits) is less than 60% of the salary in the country of residence. On the other hand, poverty in Europe is not defined by income but by wealth. Eurostat (European Statistical Agency) distinguishes 9 types of wealth: the ability to eat meat (poultry, fish) at least every other day, the presence of a car, a washing machine, a TV, a telephone, the possibility of at least a week's vacation away from home, the ability to pay unforeseen expenses (t .e. the availability of savings), the ability to maintain the required temperature in your home, etc. If at least 3 of these material goods are absent, then the family should be considered poor.
In the US, the poverty standard is calculated from the subsistence minimum multiplied by a factor of 2.5, and is approx. 1 thousand $ per month. At the same time, the subsistence minimum is the cost of a set of material goods and services that provide the minimum allowable level of personal consumption.
On this basis, two main concepts have been developed and used in world practice in the approach to determining the level of poverty: the concept of absolute poverty as the absence of income necessary to meet the minimum living needs of an individual or family, and the concept of relative poverty as the ratio of the incomes of the lowest strata of society to all the rest. . With this approach, in some countries, those whose income does not exceed 50% (40% or 60%) of the average income in the country are considered poor. However, neither concept is applied in its pure form in practice.
By international standards poverty is not calculated from the subsistence level, but from the so-called median income (if we take the entire population and distribute it by income level, then where the 50 and 51 percent will pass, and the median network). If people have an income below this level, then they cannot maintain the standard of living that is considered generally accepted.
Another way to define poverty is to analyze the share of family income spent on food. The poorer the individual, the greater part of the income is spent on food, and vice versa. The rich pay only 5-7% of their income for food.
This principle is based on Engel's law, derived back in Ser. XIX century, according to which, the lower the income, the greater the share of the expenditure should be intended for food. As family incomes rise, absolute expenditures on food increase, but in relation to all family expenditures, they decrease, and the share of expenditures on clothing, heating and lighting changes insignificantly, and the share of expenditures on satisfaction of cultural needs rises sharply.
Later, other laws of consumption were found: Schwabe's law (1868) - the poorer the family, the higher the share of housing costs; Wright's law (1875) - the higher the income, the higher the level of savings and their share in spending.
There is a practice of measuring poverty by the standard of living - if it is low, then it is considered that its representatives belong to the poor. However, it is rather problematic to measure poverty by the standard of living, since it does not always coincide with income.
For example, you can take two people, one of whom earns 14,000 rubles, and the other - 7,000. One has more income, but his mother is sick and the child is finishing school. The second has a working wife and no children, which are a lot of unaccounted for expenses.
There are other characteristics of poverty as well, such as accelerated deterioration. This is when incomes seem to grow (for example, a pension increases, an additional allowance is paid), but at the same time their growth does not ensure the restoration of existing property left over from ancient times. The result is a situation where there is a little more money, but life is getting worse.
In other cases, it is believed that the poor and the rich differ in the degree to which they satisfy their needs for cultural and household goods, especially more expensive ones that are not purchased very often.
In households with an income 3 times more than a certain basic level, there are 1.5 times more items of the group of cultural and household purposes. According to budget surveys, low-income groups have 1.5 times fewer refrigerators, 3 times fewer tape recorders, 9 times fewer cameras, and 12 fewer vacuum cleaners than high-income groups. The level of per capita consumer spending of low-income households amounted to approximately 30% of their value in high-income households [Dobrenko V.I., Kravchenko A.I. Sociology, T. 2.).
Despite the complexity of defining poverty, it should be remembered that this will have its own specifics depending on a particular society, on the standards of life adopted there, and on the range of needs, the satisfaction of which is recognized as socially necessary.
