Nuclear power plant (NPP)
power plant in which atomic (nuclear) energy is converted into electrical energy. The power generator at a nuclear power plant is atomic reactor(see Nuclear reactor). The heat that is released in the reactor as a result of the chain reaction of fission of the nuclei of some heavy elements is then converted into electricity, just as in conventional thermal power plants. Unlike thermal power plants operating on fossil fuels, nuclear power plants operate on nuclear fuel (See nuclear fuel) (mainly 233 U, 235 U. 239 Pu). When dividing 1 G uranium or plutonium isotopes released 22,500 kW h, which is equivalent to the energy contained in 2800 kg conditional fuel. It has been established that the world energy resources of nuclear fuel (uranium, plutonium, etc.) significantly exceed the energy resources of natural fossil fuel reserves (oil, coal, natural gas and etc.). This opens up broad prospects for meeting the rapidly growing demand for fuel. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the ever-increasing volume of consumption of coal and oil for technological purposes of the world economy. chemical industry, which is becoming a serious competitor to thermal power plants. Despite the discovery of new deposits of organic fuel and the improvement of methods for its production, there is a tendency in the world to attribute an increase in its cost. This creates the most difficult conditions for countries with limited reserves of fossil fuels. There is an obvious need for the rapid development of nuclear energy, which already occupies a prominent place in the energy balance of a number of industrial countries of the world. The world's first nuclear power plant for pilot purposes ( rice. 1
) with a power of 5 MW was launched in the USSR on June 27, 1954 in the city of Obninsk. Prior to this, the energy of the atomic nucleus was used mainly for military purposes. The launch of the first nuclear power plant marked the opening of a new direction in energy, which was recognized at the 1st International Scientific and Technical Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (August 1955, Geneva). In 1958, the first stage of the Siberian NPP was put into operation with a capacity of 100 MW(full design capacity 600 MW). In the same year, the construction of the Beloyarsk industrial nuclear power plant began, and on April 26, 1964, the generator of the 1st stage (unit with a capacity of 100 MW) gave current to the Sverdlovsk power system, the 2nd unit with a capacity of 200 MW commissioned in October 1967. Distinctive feature Beloyarsk NPP - superheating of steam (until the required parameters are obtained) directly in a nuclear reactor, which made it possible to use conventional modern turbines with almost no modifications. In September 1964, Unit 1 of the Novovoronezh NPP was put into operation with a capacity of 210 MW Cost price 1 kWh electricity (the most important economic indicator of the operation of any power plant) at this nuclear power plant systematically decreased: it amounted to 1.24 kopecks. in 1965, 1.22 kopecks. in 1966, 1.18 kop. in 1967, 0.94 kop. in 1968. The first unit of the Novovoronezh NPP was built not only for industrial use, but also as a demonstration facility to show the possibilities and advantages of nuclear energy, the reliability and safety of NPP operation. In November 1965, a nuclear power plant with a pressurized water reactor went into operation in Melekess, Ulyanovsk Region.
"boiling" type with a capacity of 50 MW, the reactor is assembled according to a single-circuit scheme, which facilitates the layout of the station. In December 1969, the second unit of the Novovoronezh NPP was put into operation (350 MW).
Abroad, the first nuclear power plant for industrial use with a capacity of 46 MW was put into operation in 1956 at Calder Hall (England). A year later, a nuclear power plant with a capacity of 60 MW in Shippingport (USA). A schematic diagram of a nuclear power plant with a water-cooled nuclear reactor is shown in rice. 2
. The heat released in the core (See Core) of reactor 1 is taken off by water (coolant (See Coolant)) of the 1st circuit, which is pumped through the reactor by a circulation pump 2.
Heated water from the reactor enters the heat exchanger (steam generator) 3,
where it transfers the heat received in the reactor to the water of the 2nd circuit. Water from the 2nd circuit evaporates in the steam generator, and the resulting steam enters the turbine 4.
Most often, 4 types of thermal neutron reactors are used at nuclear power plants: 1) water-cooled reactors with ordinary water as a moderator and coolant; 2) graphite-water with water coolant and graphite moderator; 3) heavy water with a water coolant and heavy water as a moderator; 4) graphite-gas with gas coolant and graphite moderator. The choice of the predominantly used type of reactor is determined mainly by the accumulated experience in reactor construction, as well as the availability of the necessary industrial equipment, raw material reserves, etc. In the USSR, mainly graphite-water and pressurized water reactors are being built. At US nuclear power plants, pressurized water reactors are most widely used. Graphite-gas reactors are used in England. Nuclear power plants in Canada are dominated by nuclear power plants with heavy water reactors. Depending on the type and state of aggregation of the coolant, one or another thermodynamic cycle of nuclear power plants is created. The choice of the upper temperature limit of the thermodynamic cycle is determined by the maximum allowable temperature of the claddings of fuel elements containing nuclear fuel, the allowable temperature of the nuclear fuel itself, and also by the properties of the heat transfer medium adopted for a given type of reactor. At nuclear power plants, the thermal reactor of which is cooled by water, low-temperature steam cycles are usually used. Gas-cooled reactors allow the use of relatively more economical steam cycles with increased initial pressure and temperature. The thermal scheme of the NPP in these two cases is performed as a 2-circuit one: the coolant circulates in the 1st circuit, the 2nd circuit is steam-water. In reactors with boiling water or high-temperature gas coolant, a single-loop thermal NPP is possible. In boiling water reactors, water boils in the core, the resulting steam-water mixture is separated, and saturated steam is sent either directly to the turbine or previously returned to the core for overheating ( rice. 3
). In high-temperature graphite-gas reactors, it is possible to use a conventional gas turbine cycle. The reactor in this case acts as a combustion chamber. During the operation of the reactor, the concentration of fissile isotopes in nuclear fuel gradually decreases, i.e., the fuel elements burn out. Therefore, over time, they are replaced with fresh ones. Nuclear fuel is reloaded using remote-controlled mechanisms and devices. Spent fuel rods are transferred to the spent fuel pool and then sent for processing. The reactor and its supporting systems include: the reactor itself with biological protection (See Biological protection), heat exchanger and, pumps or blower units that circulate the coolant; pipelines and fittings of the circulation circuit; devices for reloading nuclear fuel; special systems ventilation, emergency cooling, etc. Depending on the design, the reactors have distinctive features: in pressurized reactors (See Tank Reactor) the fuel rods and the moderator are located inside the vessel, which carries the full pressure of the coolant; in channel reactors (See Channel Reactor) Fuel rods cooled by a coolant are installed in special pipes-channels penetrating the moderator enclosed in a thin-walled casing. Such reactors are used in the USSR (Siberian, Beloyarsk nuclear power plants, etc.). To protect NPP personnel from radiation exposure, the reactor is surrounded by biological protection, the main material for which are concrete, water, and serpentine sand. The reactor circuit equipment must be completely sealed. A system is provided for monitoring places of possible leakage of the coolant, measures are taken so that the appearance of leaks and breaks in the circuit does not lead to radioactive emissions and pollution of the NPP premises and the surrounding area. The reactor circuit equipment is usually installed in sealed boxes, which are separated from the rest of the NPP premises by biological protection and are not serviced during reactor operation. Radioactive air and a small amount of coolant vapors, due to the presence of leaks from the circuit, are removed from the unattended NPP premises by a special ventilation system, in which purification filters and holding gas holders are provided to exclude the possibility of atmospheric pollution. The dosimetric control service monitors the compliance with the radiation safety rules by the NPP personnel. In case of accidents in the reactor cooling system, in order to prevent overheating and leakage of fuel rod claddings, a rapid (within a few seconds) suppression of the nuclear reaction is provided; emergency system cooling system has independent power sources. The presence of biological protection, special ventilation and emergency cooling systems and a dosimetric control service allows you to completely secure service staff NPP from the harmful effects of radioactive exposure. The equipment of the NPP machine room is similar to the equipment of the TPP machine room. A distinctive feature of most nuclear power plants is the use of steam of relatively low parameters, saturated or slightly superheated. At the same time, in order to exclude erosion damage to the blades of the last stages of the turbine by particles of moisture contained in the steam, separators are installed in the turbine. Sometimes it is necessary to use remote separators and reheaters of steam. Due to the fact that the coolant and the impurities contained in it are activated when passing through the reactor core, the design of the turbine hall equipment and the cooling system of the turbine condenser of single-loop NPPs should completely exclude the possibility of coolant leakage. At double-circuit NPPs with high steam parameters, such requirements are not imposed on the equipment of the turbine hall. The specific requirements for the layout of NPP equipment include: the minimum possible length of communications associated with radioactive media, increased rigidity of the foundations and load-bearing structures of the reactor, and reliable organization of ventilation of the premises. On rice.
shows a section of the main building of the Beloyarsk NPP with a channel graphite-water reactor. The reactor hall contains: a reactor with biological protection, spare fuel rods and control equipment. The nuclear power plant is arranged according to the block principle reactor - turbine. Turbine generators and systems serving them are located in the engine room. Between the engine and reactor halls are placed auxiliary equipment and station control systems. The cost-effectiveness of a nuclear power plant is determined by its main technical indicators: the unit power of the reactor, efficiency, the energy intensity of the core, the burnup of nuclear fuel, the utilization factor of the installed power of the nuclear power plant for the year. With the growth of NPP capacity, specific capital investments in it (the cost of the installed kW) decrease more sharply than is the case for TPPs. In that main reason striving for the construction of large nuclear power plants with a large unit capacity of units. For the economy of nuclear power plants, it is typical that the share of the fuel component in the cost of electricity generated is 30-40% (at TPPs 60-70%). Therefore, large nuclear power plants are most common in industrialized areas with limited supplies of conventional fuel, and small-capacity nuclear power plants are most common in hard-to-reach or remote areas, for example, nuclear power plants in the village. Bilibino (Yakut ASSR) with electric power of a typical unit 12 MW Part of the thermal power of the reactor of this NPP (29 MW) is used for heating. In addition to generating electricity, nuclear power plants are also used to desalinate seawater. So, Shevchenko NPP (Kazakh SSR) with an electric power of 150 MW designed for desalination (by distillation) per day up to 150,000 T water from the Caspian Sea. In most industrialized countries (the USSR, the USA, England, France, Canada, the FRG, Japan, the GDR, etc.), according to forecasts, the capacity of operating and under construction nuclear power plants by 1980 will be increased to tens of Gwt. According to the UN International Atomic Agency, published in 1967, the installed capacity of all nuclear power plants in the world by 1980 will reach 300 Gwt.
The Soviet Union is carrying out an extensive program of commissioning large power units (up to 1,000 MW) with thermal neutron reactors. In 1948-49, work began on fast neutron reactors for industrial nuclear power plants. The physical features of such reactors make it possible to carry out expanded breeding of nuclear fuel (breeding ratio from 1.3 to 1.7), which makes it possible to use not only 235 U, but also raw materials 238 U and 232 Th. In addition, fast neutron reactors do not contain a moderator, are relatively small in size and have a large load. This explains the desire for intensive development of fast reactors in the USSR. For research on fast reactors, experimental and pilot reactors BR-1, BR-2, BR-Z, BR-5, BFS were successively built. The experience gained led to the transition from research of model plants to the design and construction of industrial fast neutron nuclear power plants (BN-350) in Shevchenko and (BN-600) at Beloyarsk NPP. Research is underway on reactors for powerful nuclear power plants, for example, an experimental BOR-60 reactor has been built in the city of Melekess. Large nuclear power plants are also being built in a number of developing countries (India, Pakistan, and others). At the 3rd International Scientific and Technical Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (1964, Geneva), it was noted that the widespread development of nuclear energy has become a key problem for most countries. The 7th World Energy Conference (MIREC-VII), held in Moscow in August 1968, confirmed the relevance of the problems of choosing the direction for the development of nuclear energy at the next stage (conditionally 1980-2000), when nuclear power plants become one of the main producers of electricity. Lit.: Some issues of nuclear energy. Sat. Art., ed. M. A. Styrikovich. Moscow, 1959. Kanaev A. A., Nuclear power plants, L., 1961; Kalafati D. D., Thermodynamic cycles of nuclear power plants, M.-L., 1963; 10 years of the world's first nuclear power plant in the USSR. [Sat. Art.], M., 1964; Soviet atomic science and technology. [Collection], M., 1967; Petrosyants A. M., Atomic energy of our days, M., 1968. S. P. Kuznetsov. Big soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia.
1969-1978
.
See what "Nuclear Power Plant" is in other dictionaries:
A power plant in which atomic (nuclear) energy is converted into electrical energy. The power generator at a nuclear power plant is a nuclear reactor. Synonyms: NPP See also: Nuclear power plants Power plants Nuclear reactors Financial dictionary ... ... Financial vocabulary
- (NPP) a power plant at which nuclear (atomic) energy is converted into electrical energy. At nuclear power plants, the heat released in a nuclear reactor is used to produce water vapor that rotates a turbogenerator. The first nuclear power plant in the world with a capacity of 5 MW was ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Everything is very simple. Uranium-235 decays in a nuclear reactor, releasing great amount thermal energy, it boils water, pressurized steam turns a turbine that rotates an electric generator that generates electricity.
At least one naturally occurring nuclear reactor is known to science. It is located in the Oklo uranium deposit in Gabon. True, it has already cooled down one and a half billion years ago.
Uranium-235 is one of the isotopes of uranium. It differs from ordinary uranium in that its nucleus lacks 3 neutrons, which makes the nucleus less stable and splits into two when a neutron crashes into it at high speed. In this case, another 2–3 neutrons are emitted, which can fall into another nucleus of Uranus-235 and split it. And so on the chain. This is called a nuclear reaction.
Controlled reaction
If you do not control the nuclear chain reaction and it goes too fast, you get a real nuclear explosion. Therefore, the process must be carefully monitored and not allowed to decay uranium too quickly. To do this, nuclear fuel in metal tubes is placed in a moderator - a substance that slows down neutrons and converts their kinetic energy into heat.
To control the reaction rate, rods of neutron-absorbing material are immersed in the moderator. When these rods are lifted, they trap fewer neutrons and the reaction speeds up. If the rods are lowered, the reaction will slow down again.
A matter of technology
Huge pipes in nuclear power plants are actually not pipes at all, but cooling towers - towers for quickly cooling steam.
At the moment of disintegration, the core splits into two parts, which fly apart at breakneck speed. But they do not fly far - they hit neighboring atoms, and kinetic energy turns into heat.
Then this heat is used to heat water, turning it into steam, the steam turns the turbine, and the turbine turns the generator, which generates electricity, just like in a conventional coal-fired thermal power plant.
It's funny, but all this nuclear physics, uranium isotopes, nuclear chain reactions - all in order to boil water.
For purity
Nuclear energy is not only used in nuclear power plants. There are ships and submarines that run on nuclear energy. In the 1950s, nuclear cars, planes and trains were even developed.
As a result of the operation of a nuclear reactor, radioactive waste is generated. Some of them can be recycled for further use, some have to be kept in special storage facilities so that they do not harm humans and the environment.
Despite this, nuclear energy is now one of the most environmentally friendly. Nuclear power plants produce no emissions into the atmosphere, require very little fuel, take up little space and correct use very safe.
But after the accident Chernobyl nuclear power plant many countries have suspended the development of nuclear energy. Although, for example, in France, almost 80 percent of energy is generated by nuclear power plants.
In the 2000s, because of the high price of oil, everyone remembered nuclear energy. There are developments on compact nuclear power plants that are safe, can run for decades, and require no maintenance.
Modern man cannot imagine life without electricity. If the power supply stops even for a few hours, the life of the metropolis will be paralyzed. More than 90% of electricity in Voronezh region produced by the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant. Correspondents of RIA "Voronezh" visited NV NPP and found out how nuclear energy is converted into electricity.
When did the first nuclear power plant appear?
In 1898, famous scientists Maria Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie discovered that pitchblende, a uranium mineral, is radioactive, and in 1933, the American physicist Leo Szilard first put forward the idea of a nuclear chain reaction, a principle that, after its implementation in practice, opened the way for the creation nuclear weapons. Initially, the energy of the atom was used for military purposes. For the first time, the atom was used for peaceful purposes in the USSR. The world's first experimental nuclear power plant with a capacity of only 5 MW was launched in 1954 in the city of Obninsk, Kaluga Region. The work of the first experimental nuclear power plant has shown its promise and safety. During its operation, there are no harmful emissions in environment, unlike thermal power plants, it is not required a large number organic fuel. Today, nuclear power plants are one of the most environmentally friendly sources of energy.
When was the Novovoronezh NPP built?
Construction of the first industrial block of NV NPP
For the first time, the industrial use of atomic energy in the Soviet Union began at the Novovoronezh NPP. In September 1964, the first power unit of the NVNPP with a pressurized water reactor (VVER) was launched, its capacity was 210 MW - almost 40 times more than that of the first experimental nuclear power plant. This reactor model is considered one of the most technically advanced and safe in the world. Submarine reactors served as prototypes for VVER for nuclear power plants. During the construction of the first power unit of the Novovoronezh NPP, there were no training centers training of specialists capable of operating reactors. The first nuclear scientists were recruited from former submariners.
Five power units were built and put into operation at the Novovoronezh NPP, three of them are currently in operation, construction and preparations are underway for the launch of two more new ones. All power units at NVNPP with VVER reactors.
How much energy does a nuclear power plant produce?
The capacity of the power unit can range from several units to several thousand MW. Industrial nuclear power plants are very powerful. Novovoronezh NPP provides about 90% of the needs of the Voronezh region in electrical energy and almost 90% of the needs of Novovoronezh in heat. The total capacity of power units of the Novoronezh NPP is 1800 MW. The annual amount of electricity generated at nuclear power plants is enough to provide the Voronezh aircraft plant with 191 years of uninterrupted operation or to light 650 standard nine-story buildings. After the launch of the sixth and seventh power units, the total capacity of the Novovoronezh NPP will increase by 2.23 times. Then the annual amount of energy generated by the nuclear power plant will be enough to ensure the work of Russian railways more than 8 months.
How is a nuclear power plant organized?
Power unit No. 5 NV NPP
Energy at a nuclear power plant is generated in a reactor. The fuel for it is artificially enriched uranium in the form of pellets several millimeters in diameter. Uranium pellets are placed in fuel elements (TVELs) - these are sealed hollow tubes made of heat-resistant zirconium. Fuel assemblies (FA) are assembled from fuel rods. There are several hundred fuel assemblies in the VVER core, where uranium fission processes take place. It is fuel assemblies that transfer energy by heating the primary coolant. The density of neutrons in the reactor is the power of the reactor, and it is regulated by the amount of neutron absorber-boron-containing elements introduced into the core (like a brake on a car). For the production of electricity at NPP power units, as well as at thermal units, less than half of the heat generated is used (the law of physics), the remaining heat of the steam exhausted in the turbine is removed to the environment. At the first units of the Novoronezh NPP, water from the Don River was used to remove heat. To cool the third and fourth power units, cooling towers are used - structures made of iron and aluminum with a height of about 91 meters and a mass of 920 tons, where the heated circulating water is cooled by an air stream. To cool the fifth power unit, a cooling pond filled with circulating water was built, and its surface is used to transfer heat to the environment. This water does not come into contact with the primary water and is completely safe. The cooling pond is so clean that in 2010 all-Russian fishing competitions were held on it. To cool the circulating water of units 6 and 7, the highest cooling towers in Russia, 173 m high, were built. From the very top of the cooling tower, the outskirts of the city of Voronezh are clearly visible.
How does nuclear energy turn into electricity?
The processes of fission of uranium nuclei take place in the VVER core. In this case, a huge amount of energy is released, which heats the water (coolant) of the primary circuit to a temperature of about 300 °C. The water does not boil at the same time, as it is under high pressure (principle of a pressure cooker). The coolant of the primary circuit is radioactive, therefore it does not leave the circuit. Then it is fed into steam generators, where the water of the secondary circuit is heated and turns into steam, and already in the turbine it converts its energy into electrical energy.
How does electricity get to our apartments?
Electric current is an ordered uncompensated movement of free electrically charged particles-electrons under the influence of electric field. A colossal amount of power with a voltage of 220 or 500 thousand volts leaves the nuclear power plant through wires. Such a high voltage is necessary to reduce losses during transmission over long distances. However, the consumer does not need such voltage and is very dangerous. Before the electric current enters the houses, the voltage is reduced by means of transformers to the usual 220 volts. By inserting the plug of an electrical appliance into the socket, you connect it to the electrical network.
How safe is nuclear power?
Cooling pond NV NPP
When properly operated, a nuclear power plant is completely safe. The radiation background in the 30 km zone around the Novoronezh NPP is controlled by 20 automatic posts. They operate in continuous measurement mode. In the entire history of the station's operation, the radiation background has never exceeded the natural background values. But nuclear power has a potential hazard. Therefore, every year the safety systems at nuclear power plants become more and more perfect. If for the first generations of NPPs (1,2 power units) the main safety systems were active, that is, they had to be started by a person or automation, then when designing generation 3+ units (6th and 7th power units of Novovoronezh NPP), the main bet is made on passive safety systems. In the event of a potentially dangerous situation, they will work themselves, obeying not a person or automation, but the laws of physics. For example, in the event of a blackout at a nuclear power plant, the protective elements under the action of gravity will spontaneously fall into the core and shut down the reactor.
The personnel of the nuclear power plant regularly trains to cope with various types of emergencies. emergency situations are simulated on special full-scale simulators - computerized devices that are outwardly indistinguishable from block control panels. The operational personnel managing the reactor, every 5 years, receives a license from Rostekhnadzor for the right to conduct the technological process (control of the NPP unit). The procedure is similar to obtaining a driver's license. The specialist takes theoretical exams and demonstrates practical skills on the simulator. Only having a license and passing exams at nuclear power plants, personnel are allowed to operate the reactor.
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The proposal to create an AM reactor for the future nuclear power plant was first made on November 29, 1949 at a meeting of the scientific director of the atomic project I.V. Kurchatov, director of the Institute of Physical Problems A.P. Aleksandrov, director of NIIKhimash N.A. Dollezhal and scientific secretary of the NTS of the industry B.S. Pozdnyakov. The meeting recommended to include in the research plan of the CCGT for 1950 "a project of an enriched uranium reactor with small dimensions only for power purposes with a total heat release capacity of 300 units, an effective capacity of about 50 units" with graphite and a water coolant. At the same time, instructions were given to urgently carry out physical calculations and experimental studies on this reactor.
Later I.V. Kurchatov and A.P. Zavenyagin explained the choice of the AM reactor for high-priority construction by the fact that, more than in other units, it can use the experience of conventional boiler practice: the overall relative simplicity of the unit facilitates and reduces the cost of construction.
During this period, options for the use of power reactors are being discussed at various levels.
PROJECT
It was considered expedient to start with the creation of a reactor for a ship power plant. In order to justify the design of this reactor and to "confirm in principle ... the practical possibility of converting the heat of nuclear reactions of nuclear installations into mechanical and electrical energy", it was decided to build in Obninsk, on the territory of Laboratory "V", a nuclear power plant with three reactor installations, including and the AM plant, which became the reactor of the First NPP).
By the Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of May 16, 1950, R&D in AM was entrusted to LIPAN (I.V. Kurchatov Institute), NIIKhimmash, GSPI-11, VTI). In 1950 - early 1951. these organizations carried out preliminary calculations (P.E. Nemirovskii, S.M. Feinberg, Yu.N. Zankov), preliminary design studies, etc., then all work on this reactor was, by decision of I.V. Kurchatov, transferred to the Laboratory "B". Academic Supervisor appointed, chief designer - N.A. Dollezhal.
The project provided for the following parameters of the reactor: thermal power 30 thousand kW, electric power - 5 thousand kW, reactor type - thermal neutron reactor with graphite moderator and cooling with natural water.
By this time, the country already had experience in creating reactors of this type (industrial reactors for the production of bomb material), but they differed significantly from power plants, which include the AM reactor. Difficulties were associated with the need to obtain AM in the reactor high temperatures coolant, from which it followed that it was necessary to search for new materials and alloys that can withstand these temperatures, are resistant to corrosion, do not absorb neutrons in large quantities, etc. For the initiators of the construction of a nuclear power plant with an AM reactor, these problems were obvious from the very beginning, the question was how soon and how successfully they can be overcome.
CALCULATIONS AND STAND
By the time the work on AM was handed over to Laboratory "B", the project was defined only in general terms. There were many physical, technical and technological problems to be solved, and their number increased as the work on the reactor progressed.
First of all, this concerned the physical calculations of the reactor, which had to be carried out without many of the data necessary for this. In Laboratory "V" D.F. Zaretsky, and the main calculations were carried out by the group of M.E. Minashina in the department of A.K. Krasin. M.E. Minashin was especially concerned about the lack of precise values for many of the constants. It was difficult to organize their measurement on the spot. On his initiative, some of them were gradually replenished mainly due to measurements carried out by LIPAN and a few in Laboratory "B", but in general it was impossible to guarantee high precision calculated parameters. Therefore, at the end of February - beginning of March 1954, the AMF stand was assembled - a critical assembly of the AM reactor, which confirmed the satisfactory quality of the calculations. And although the assembly could not reproduce all the conditions of a real reactor, the results supported the hope of success, although there were many doubts.
On March 3, 1954, a chain reaction of uranium fission was carried out on this stand for the first time in Obninsk.
But, taking into account that the experimental data were constantly refined, the calculation methodology was improved, until the reactor was launched, the study of the value of the reactor fuel load, the behavior of the reactor in non-standard modes continued, the parameters of the absorbing rods, etc. were calculated.
CREATION OF A TVEL
With another the most important task- the creation of a fuel element (fuel element) - brilliantly managed by V.A. Malykh and the staff of the technological department of the Laboratory "V". Several related organizations were involved in the development of the fuel element, but only the option proposed by V.A. Small, showed high performance. The design search was completed at the end of 1952 by the development of a new type of fuel element (with a dispersion composition of uranium-molybdenum grains in a magnesium matrix).
This type of fuel element made it possible to reject them during pre-reactor tests (special benches were created in Laboratory V for this purpose), which is very important for ensuring the reliable operation of the reactor. The stability of a new fuel element in a neutron flux was studied at LIPAN at the MR reactor. NIIKhimmash developed the working channels of the reactor.
So for the first time in our country, perhaps the most important and most difficult problem of the emerging nuclear power industry was solved - the creation of a fuel element.
CONSTRUCTION
In 1951, simultaneously with the beginning in the Laboratory "B" research work on the AM reactor, the construction of a nuclear power plant building began on its territory.
P.I. was appointed head of construction. Zakharov, chief engineer of the facility -.
As D.I. Blokhintsev, “the nuclear power plant building in its most important parts had thick walls made of reinforced concrete monolith to provide biological protection from nuclear radiation. Pipelines, cable channels, ventilation, etc. were laid in the walls. It is clear that alterations were not possible, and therefore, when designing the building, reserves were provided for, if possible, with the expectation of changes. For the development of new types of equipment and for the implementation of research work, scientific and technical assignments were given to "outside organizations" - institutes, design bureaus and enterprises. Often these tasks themselves could not be complete and were refined and supplemented as the design progressed. The main engineering and design solutions ... were developed by a design team led by N.A. Dollezhal and his closest assistant P.I. Aleshchenkov ... "
The style of work on the construction of the first nuclear power plant was characterized by rapid decision-making, the speed of development, a certain developed depth of primary studies and ways to refine the adopted technical solutions, a wide coverage of alternative and insurance areas. The first nuclear power plant was built in three years.
START
At the beginning of 1954, testing and testing of various station systems began.
On May 9, 1954, the loading of the nuclear power plant reactor core with fuel channels began in Laboratory "B". When introducing the 61st fuel channel, a critical state was reached, at 19:40. A chain self-sustaining reaction of fission of uranium nuclei began in the reactor. The physical launch of the nuclear power plant took place.
Recalling the launch, he wrote: “Gradually, the power of the reactor increased, and finally, somewhere near the CHP building, where steam was supplied from the reactor, we saw a jet escaping from the valve with a loud hiss. A white cloud of ordinary steam, and besides, not yet hot enough to rotate the turbine, seemed to us a miracle: after all, this is the first steam produced by atomic energy. His appearance was the occasion for hugs, congratulations "on a light steam" and even tears of joy. Our jubilation was shared by I.V. Kurchatov, who took part in the work in those days. After receiving steam with a pressure of 12 atm. and at a temperature of 260 °C, it became possible to study all the units of the nuclear power plant under conditions close to the design ones, and on June 26, 1954, in the evening shift, at 17:00. 45 min., the valve for supplying steam to the turbogenerator was opened, and it began to generate electricity from a nuclear boiler. The world's first nuclear power plant has come under industrial load."
“In the Soviet Union, the efforts of scientists and engineers have successfully completed the design and construction of the first industrial nuclear power plant with a useful capacity of 5,000 kilowatts. On June 27, the nuclear power plant was put into operation and provided electricity for industry and Agriculture surrounding areas."
Even before the start-up, the first program of experimental work at the AM reactor was prepared, and until the plant was closed, it was one of the main reactor bases, where neutron-physical research, research in solid state physics, testing of fuel rods, EGC, production of isotope products, etc. The crews of the first nuclear submarines were trained at the NPP, nuclear icebreaker"Lenin", personnel of Soviet and foreign nuclear power plants.
The launch of the nuclear power plant for the young staff of the institute was the first test of readiness to solve new and more complex problems. In the initial months of work, individual units and systems were adjusted, studied in detail physical characteristics of the reactor, the thermal regime of the equipment and the entire station, finalized and corrected various devices. In October 1954, the station was brought to its design capacity.
“London, July 1 (TASS). The announcement of the launching of the first industrial atomic power plant in the USSR is widely noted in the English press, the Moscow correspondent of The Daily Worker writes that this historic event “is of immeasurably greater significance than the dropping of the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima.
Paris, July 1 (TASS). The London correspondent of Agence France-Presse reports that the announcement of the commissioning in the USSR of the world's first industrial power plant operating on atomic energy was met with great interest in London circles of atomic specialists. England, the correspondent continues, is building a nuclear power plant at Calderhall. It is believed that she will be able to enter service no earlier than in 2.5 years ...
Shanghai, July 1 (TASS). Responding to the commissioning of a Soviet atomic power plant, Tokyo radio broadcasts: The USA and Britain are also planning the construction of nuclear power plants, but they plan to complete their construction in 1956-1957. The fact that the Soviet Union was ahead of England and America in the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes indicates that Soviet scientists have achieved great success in the field of atomic energy. One of the outstanding Japanese experts in the field nuclear physics- Professor Yoshio Fujioka, commenting on the news about the launch of a nuclear power plant in the USSR, said that this is the beginning of a "new era".
How many of you have seen a nuclear power plant even from afar? Taking into account the fact that there are only ten operating nuclear power plants in Russia and they are protected, be healthy, I think the answer in most cases is negative. However, in LiveJournal, people, as you know, are experienced. Okay, but how many then saw the nuclear power plant from the inside? Well, for example, groped own hand nuclear reactor vessel? Nobody. I guessed?
Well, today all subscribers of this photoblog have the opportunity to see all these high technologies as closely as possible. I understand that live it is much more interesting at times, but let's start small. In the future, perhaps, I will be able to take a few people with me, but for now we are studying the materiel!
02
. So, we are forty-five kilometers away from the construction site of the 4th stage of the Novovoronezh NPP. Not far from the operating nuclear power plant (the first power unit was launched back in the sixties of the last century), two modern power units with a total capacity of 2400 MW are being built. The construction is carried out according to the new AES-2006 project, which provides for the use of VVER-1200 reactors. But about the reactors themselves a little later. 
03
. It is the fact that the construction is not yet completed that gives us a rare chance to see everything with our own eyes. Even the reactor hall, which in the future will be hermetically sealed and opened for maintenance only once a year. 
04
. As you can see in the previous photo, the dome of the outer containment of the seventh power unit is still at the stage of concreting, but the reactor building of power unit No. 6 already looks more interesting (see photo below). In total, the concreting of this dome required more than 2,000 cubic meters of concrete. The diameter of the dome at the base is 44 m, the thickness is 1.2 m. Pay attention to the green pipes and the voluminous metal cylinder (weight - 180 tons, diameter - about 25 m, height - 13 m) - these are elements of the passive heat removal system (PHS). ). They are being installed at the Russian NPP for the first time. In the event of a complete blackout of all NPP systems (as happened at Fukushima), the PHRS is capable of providing long-term heat removal from the reactor core. 
05
. Undoubtedly, the most large-scale element of nuclear power plants are tower cooling towers. In addition, it is one of the most efficient devices for cooling water in circulating water supply systems. The high tower creates the very draft of air that is necessary for the effective cooling of the circulating water. Thanks to high tower one part of the vapor is returned to the cycle, and the other part is carried away by the wind. 
06
. The height of the shell of the tower cooling tower of power unit No. 6 is 171 meters. It's about 60 floors. Now this building is the highest among similar ones ever built in Russia. Its predecessors did not exceed 150 m in height (at the Kalinin NPP). It took more than 10 thousand cubic meters of concrete to build the structure. 
07
. At the base of the cooling tower (diameter is 134 m) is the so-called pool bowl. Its upper part is "paved" with irrigation blocks. The fill is the main structural element of this type of cooling tower, designed to break up the flow of water flowing down it and provide it with long time and the maximum area of contact with the cooling air. In essence, these are lattice modules made of modern polymeric materials. 
08
. Naturally, I wanted to take an epic shot of the top, but the already mounted sprinkler prevented me from doing this. Therefore, we move to the cooling tower of power unit No. 7. Alas, it was frosty at night and we broke off with the elevator ride to the very top. He froze. 
09
. Okay, maybe someday I'll have a chance to ride on such a top, but for now, a frame of an irrigation system being mounted. 
10
. I thought about it ... Or maybe we were simply not allowed to go upstairs for security reasons? 
11
. The entire territory of the construction site is full of warning, prohibiting and simply propaganda posters and signs. 
12
. OK. We teleport to the building of the central control panel (CSC).
Well, of course, nowadays everything is controlled by computers. 
13
. The huge room, flooded with light, is literally crammed with orderly rows of cabinets with automatic relay protection systems. 
14
. Relay protection continuously monitors the state of all elements of the electric power system and reacts to the occurrence of damage and / or abnormal modes. In the event of damage, the protection system must identify a specific damaged area and turn it off by acting on special power switches designed to open fault currents (short circuit or earth fault). 
15
. Fire extinguishers are placed along each wall. Automatic, of course. 
16
. Next, we move to the building of a complete switchgear for 220 kV (KRUE-220). One of the most photogenic places in the entire nuclear power plant, in my opinion. There is also KRUE-500, but it was not shown to us. KRUE-220 is part of the general station electrical equipment and is designed to receive power from external power lines and distribute it at the site of the station under construction. That is, while the power units are being built, with the help of KRUE-220, the facilities under construction are directly supplied with electricity. 
17
. In the AES-2006 project, according to which the sixth and seventh power units are being built, for the first time in the scheme of power distribution at distribution substations, packaged switchgears 220/500 kV of a closed type with SF6 insulation were used. Compared to open switchgears, which have been used in the nuclear power industry so far, the area of closed switchgear is several times smaller. To understand the scale of the building, I recommend returning to the title photo. 
18
. Naturally, after the new power units are put into operation, the KRUE-220 equipment will be used to transfer electricity generated at the Novovoronezh NPP to the Unified Energy System. Pay attention to the boxes near the power lines. Most electrical equipment used in construction is manufactured by Siemens. 
19
. But not only. Here, for example, is a Hyundai autotransformer.
The weight of this unit is 350 tons, and it is designed to convert electricity from 500 kV to 220 kV. 
20
. There are (which is nice) our solutions. Here, for example, is a step-up transformer manufactured by Elektrozavod JSC. Established in 1928, the first domestic transformer plant played a colossal role in the industrialization of the country and in the development of domestic energy. Equipment with the brand name "Electrozavod" operates in more than 60 countries around the world. 
21
. Just in case, I will explain a little about transformers. In general, the power distribution scheme (after completion of construction and commissioning, of course) provides for the production of electricity with a voltage of two classes - 220 kV and 500 kV. At the same time, the turbine (about it later) generates only 24 kV, which are fed through the conductor to the block transformer, where they rise to 500 kV. After that, a part of the power capacity is transferred through the KRUE-500 to the Unified Energy System. The other part goes to autotransformers (those same Hyundais), where it drops from 500 kV to 220 kV and also enters the power system through KRUE-220 (see above). So, as the mentioned block transformer, three single-phase step-up "electric factory" transformers are used (the power of each is 533 MW, the weight is 340 tons). 
22
. If it is clear, let's move on to the steam turbine plant of power unit No. 6. Forgive me, my story seems to go from the end to the beginning (if we start from the process of generating electricity), but approximately in this sequence we walked around the construction site. So I beg your pardon. 
23
. So, the turbine and generator are hidden under the casing. Therefore, I explain. Actually, a turbine is a unit in which thermal energy steam (with a temperature of about 300 degrees and a pressure of 6.8 MPa) is converted into the mechanical energy of the rotation of the rotor, and already on the generator - into the electrical energy we need. The weight of the machine in the assembled state is more than 2600 tons, the length is 52 meters, it consists of more than 500 components. About 200 trucks were used to transport this equipment to the construction site. This turbine K-1200-7-3000 was manufactured at the Leningrad metal factory and this is the first high-speed (3000 rpm) turbine with a capacity of 1200 MW in Russia. This innovative development was created specifically for nuclear power units of a new generation, which are being built according to the AES-2006 project. The photo shows a general view of the turbine shop. Or a turbine hall, if you like. The old-school nuclear scientists call the turbine a machine. 
24
. One floor below are the turbine condensers. The capacitor group belongs to the main technological equipment engine room and, as everyone has already guessed, is designed to turn the steam exhausted in the turbine into liquid. The resulting condensate after the necessary regeneration is returned to the steam generator. The weight of the equipment of the condensing unit, which includes 4 condensers and a piping system, is more than 2000 tons. Inside the capacitors there are about 80,000 titanium tubes that form a heat transfer surface. with total area 100 thousand square meters. 
25
. Got it? Here is the building of the turbine hall almost in section and we move on. At the very top of the overhead crane. 
26
. We are moving to the block control panel of power unit No. 6.
The purpose, I think, is clear without explanation. Figuratively speaking, this is the brain of a nuclear power plant. 
27
. BPU elements. 
28
. And finally, we are going to see the premises of the reactor compartment! Actually, this is the place where the nuclear reactor, the primary circuit and their auxiliary equipment are located. Naturally, in the foreseeable future it will become airtight and inaccessible. 
29
. And in the most natural way, when you get inside, the first thing you do is lift your head and marvel at the size of the containment dome. Well, a polar crane at the same time. A circular overhead crane (polar crane) with a lifting capacity of 360 tons is designed for the installation of large-sized and heavy containment equipment (reactor vessel, steam generators, pressure compensator, etc.). After the nuclear power plant is put into operation, the crane will be used for repair work and transportation nuclear fuel.
30
. Further, of course, I rush to the reactor and watch its upper part in fascination, not yet suspecting that the situation is similar with icebergs. So that's what you are, reindeer. Figuratively speaking, this is the heart of a nuclear power plant. 
31
. Reactor vessel flange. Later, an upper unit with CPS drives (reactor control and protection system) will be installed on it, which provides sealing of the main connector. 
32
. Nearby we observe the pool of exposure. Its inner surface is a welded structure made of stainless steel sheet. It is designed for temporary storage of spent nuclear fuel unloaded from the reactor. After the residual heat release is reduced, the used fuel is transported from the spent fuel pool to the enterprise nuclear industry engaged in the processing and regeneration of fuel (storage, disposal or processing). 
33
. And this is along the wall of the hydraulic tanks of the passive bay system of the core. They belong to passive safety systems, that is, they function without the involvement of personnel and the use of external sources power supply. Simplifying, these are giant barrels filled with an aqueous solution of boric acid. In the event of an emergency, when the pressure in the primary circuit drops below a certain level, liquid is supplied to the reactor and the core is cooled. Thus, the nuclear reaction is quenched by a large amount of boron-containing water that absorbs neutrons. It should be noted that in the AES-2006 project, according to which the fourth stage of the Novovoronezh NPP is being built, for the first time an additional, second, stage of protection is provided - hydraulic reservoirs of the passive bay of the core (8 out of 12 reservoirs), each with a volume of 120 cubic meters. 
34
. During future scheduled preventive maintenance and replacement of nuclear fuel, it will be possible to get inside the reactor compartment through the transport lock. It is a 14-meter cylindrical chamber with a diameter of more than 9 meters, hermetically locked on both sides with gate leaves that open alternately. The total weight of the lock is about 230 tons. 
35
. From the outside of the lock, a panoramic view of the entire construction site as a whole and power unit No. 7 in particular opens up. 
36
. Well, after taking a breath of fresh air, we go down below to see, in fact, the cylindrical reactor vessel. But so far we have come across only technological pipelines. The big green pipe is one of the loops, so we're pretty close now. 
37
. And here he is. Pressurized pressurized pressurized water reactor VVER-1200. I will not delve into the jungle of nuclear fission and nuclear chain reaction (go ahead and already read diagonally), I will only add that inside the reactor there are many fuel elements (the so-called fuel rods) in the form of a set of sealed tubes made of special alloys with a diameter of 9.1 -13.5 mm and several meters long, filled with nuclear fuel pellets, as well as control rods that can be remotely moved from the control panel along the entire height of the core. These rods are made from substances that absorb neutrons, such as boron or cadmium. With the deep introduction of the rods, the chain reaction becomes impossible, since the neutrons are strongly absorbed and removed from the reaction zone. In this way, the power of the reactor is regulated. Now it is clear why there are so many holes in the upper part of the reactor? 
38
. Yes, I almost forgot about the main circulation pump (MCP). It also belongs to the main technological equipment of the reactor building and is designed to create coolant circulation in the primary circuit. Within an hour, the unit pumps over 25 thousand cubic meters of water. The MCP also provides core cooling in all operating modes of the reactor plant. The installation includes four MCPs. 
39
. Well, to consolidate the material covered, we look at the most a simple circuit NPP operation. It's simple, isn't it? In especially neglected cases, re-read the post again, hehe))
40
. It's kind of like this in general. But for those who are close to the topic, I will throw in a few more cards with people. Agree, there are not so many of them in the report, and meanwhile, since 2006, many thousands of specialists of various profiles have worked here. 
41
. Someone below... 
42
. And someone at the top... Although you don't see them, they are there. 
43
. And this is one of the most honored builders of the Novovoronezh NPP - a DEMAG crawler crane. It was he who lifted and installed these multi-ton elements of the reactor and engine rooms (load capacity - 1250 tons). Uncle-installer and a truck to understand the scale, and in full height (115 meters) look at the handsome man in photos 03 and 04. 
And as a conclusion. Since March of this year, for reasons unknown to me, the operating Novovoronezh NPP and the Novovoronezh NPP-2 under construction have been merged. What we visited and what we used to call NVNPP-2 is now called the fourth stage of NVNPP, and the power units under construction have turned from the first and second into the sixth and seventh, respectively. Infa 110%. Those who wish can immediately go to rewrite articles on Wikipedia, and I thank the staff of the department for relations with NVNPP power units under construction and especially Tatyana, without whom this excursion would most likely not have taken place. Also my thanks for the educational program on the device nuclear power plants shift supervisor Roman Vladimirovich Gridnev, as well as Vladimir
