International transport relations. Essence and types of international transport operations Essence and types of international transport operations

Transport service for international economic ties

In the implementation of international economic relations, transport ensures the movement of goods (cargo) and people (passengers) between two or more countries, that is, in international communications.

Depending on the specific modes of transport used in transportation, there are sea, river, air, rail, road and pipeline communications. These are the so-called direct international connections served by one mode of transport. In cases where two or more modes of transport are consistently used in the international carriage of goods or passengers, mixed (combined) messages take place. If such transportation is issued by one (through) transport document covering all modes of transport participating in it, it is called direct mixed.

International shipping

International cargo communications. In any foreign trade transaction, the sold goods fall into the sphere of international circulation. With the help of means of transport, goods move from the place of its production to the point of consumption. At the same time, transport, as it were, continues the process of producing goods within the sphere of circulation, adding to its initial cost (price) the cost (price) of the produced transport products during the movement.

World trade generates large flows of commodity masses between countries, regions and continents. In servicing international trade between countries separated from each other by seas and oceans, maritime transport is indispensable, which is rightfully considered the most versatile and efficient means of delivering large masses of goods over long distances. This type of transport provides transportation for more than 80% of international trade. Cargo owners pay to ship owners in the form of freight for the transportation of goods in international maritime traffic $ 105 - 110 billion annually, which is approximately 7% of the value of world exports.

The main part of international maritime cargo flows are bulk liquid and bulk cargoes: Crude oil (about 1000 million tons per year), oil products (300 million tons), iron ore(300 million tons), coal(270 million tons), grain (200 million tons). From other maritime trade cargoes, the so-called general, or packaged-piece cargoes, that is, finished industrial products, semi-finished products, food, stand out. The annual volume of their traffic is estimated at 700 million tons. This is the most valuable part of the world trade turnover (about 70% in value).

A serious competitor to maritime transport in the intercontinental transportation of valuable cargo in Lately became air transport. Rail, river and road transport are widely used in inland foreign trade, as well as during the transportation of export and import goods through the territory of the countries of sellers and countries of buyers. Pipeline systems play an important role in the international trade in oil and gas.

International passenger communications. The processes of internationalization of foreign trade, tourism, scientific, cultural, social and other humanitarian ties that have deepened over the past decades have caused an "explosion" of the international mobility of the population in all developed countries of the world. Currently, several billion passengers annually make one-time or regular trips in international communications.

Air transport, having an undeniable advantage over other modes of transport in the speed of delivery of passengers on long-distance travel routes, has firmly taken a leading position in international passenger communications. During the 80s alone, the carrying capacity of air transport on international routes doubled due to the commissioning of a large number wide body jet aircraft high level comfort for passengers, on the one hand, and with improved energy efficiency and transportation costs, on the other.

Along with air transport, road transport (cars and buses) and rail transport are widely used in intracontinental international passenger transportation. Sea and river passenger communications are most popular in the form of international tourist cruises.

Transport for international transport. In the world there is no special, isolated from the national transport systems of international transport, designed exclusively for international transportation of goods and passengers. International transportation is served by national carriers of various countries using their own rolling stock (sea and river vessels, aircraft, wagons, cars), as well as transport networks (railway, road, river, air) and transport hubs (sea and river ports, airports). , railway stations, bus stations, cargo and passenger terminals) related to the transport systems of individual countries.

Essence and types of international transport operations

Usually the process of delivery of goods in international trade includes, first of all, its transportation from the domestic point of production A to the border point (port) B of the seller's country; further international transit or sea transportation from point B to the border point (port) of the buyer's country (if the partner countries do not have a common land border); and, finally, transportation from point B to the domestic point of consumption.

Scheme of the process of delivery of goods in international trade

Transport operations in their direct meaning are understood as ensuring the transportation of goods in sections A

B, B - C, C - D. These operations are carried out under an agreement between cargo owners and carriers of the corresponding types of public transport, which includes vehicles and permanent devices belonging to transport organizations, provided under contracts to cargo owners.

Transport operations are considered international if they are associated with the movement of foreign trade goods on sections of the B-C transportation route relative to the country-seller and the country-buyer. Legal relations arising in such transport operations between senders and recipients of goods, as well as between them and carriers, are of an international nature.

Carrying out international transport operations, carriers provide transport services to cargo owners, which are a specific commodity of international trade. International transport services are bought and sold on international transport markets. The prices of transport services and other conditions for their provision in some cases are the subject of negotiations between the parties concerned, in others they are set by the carriers themselves.

International transport operations also include the transportation of passengers in messages between various states. Services for the delivery of passengers in international communications are bought and sold in the respective transport markets. Important role while playing travel agencies and other similar organizations that have close ties with air, sea, river, road and rail transport enterprises.

Thus, services for the transport of goods and passengers are the subject of sale and purchase in various international transport markets. Countries participating in international economic relations, selling and buying transport services through their cargo-owning, transport, tourism and other organizations, carry out their export and import.

Conventions and agreements on international transport

Transportation facilities, transport networks and terminal complexes used in the international transportation of goods and passengers are characterized by high capital intensity of facilities and, in many cases, low return on assets (capital return). In view of this, the transport business belongs to the category of the most risky for private capital.

States interested in expanding the activities of their national transport enterprises in international traffic have always sought international cooperation in order to develop uniform (unified) conditions for the transport of goods and passengers, as well as harmonize legal norms related to the regime for the location of vehicles and personnel serving them within jurisdiction of the contracting parties and on many other issues. As a result of these efforts, a significant number of international agreements on certain types transport, called "transport conventions". In some cases, multilateral agreements on international transport are concluded at the level of transport enterprises different countries.

Most international transport conventions have provisions relating to the contract for the carriage of goods and passengers in the relevant international traffic. According to the contract, one party - the transport organization (carrier) - undertakes to deliver the cargo or passenger to the specified destination, and the other party - the cargo owner (passenger) - undertakes to pay the carriage fee to the carrier. The remaining terms of the contract of carriage supplement, concretize and decipher the above obligations.

Transport conventions define the basic details, and in some cases the form of transport documents that must be used in international transportation. The most common are two types of transport documents: waybill (for rail, air and road communications) and bill of lading (for sea and river communications).

Characteristics of modes of transport used in international transportation

Railway transport

Railways are the most cost-effective mode of transport for the transportation of wagon loads in bulk of coal, ore, sand, agricultural and forest products - over long distances. Recently railways began to increase the number of services, taking into account the specification of customers. New equipment was created for more efficient cargo handling certain categories of goods, platforms for the transport of car trailers (travel piggyback), began to provide services in transit, such as redirection of goods already shipped to another destination directly on the route and processing of goods during transportation.

Water transport

The cost of transporting bulky, low-cost, non-perishable goods such as sand, coal, grain, oil, and metal ores by water is very small. On the other side, water transport the slowest moving and often affected by the weather.

Automobile transport

Freight transport is constantly increasing its share in transportation. This type of transportation is extremely flexible in terms of routes and schedules. Trucks are able to transport goods "from door to door", saving the sender from the need for unnecessary transportation. Trucks are a cost-effective mode of transport for transporting high-value goods over short distances. In many cases, road transport rates are competitively comparable to those of railroads, but trucks usually provide a more responsive service.

Pipeline transport

Pipelines are a specific means of transporting oil, coal and chemical products from their places of origin to markets. Transportation of petroleum products through oil pipelines is cheaper than by rail, but somewhat more expensive than by water. Most pipelines are used by owners to transport their own products.

Air Transport

This type of transport is becoming increasingly important. Although air freight rates are much higher than rail or road rates, air transportation proves to be ideal when speed is of the essence and/or when it is necessary to reach distant markets. Among the most frequently transported goods by air are perishable products (such as fresh fish, fresh flowers) and low-volume, high-value items (such as appliances, jewelry). Firms are convinced that the use of air transport can reduce the required level of inventory, reduce the number of warehouses, and reduce packaging costs.

Selecting the type of transport

When choosing a means of delivery for a particular product, shippers take into account up to six factors. Table __ provides a brief comparison of the different modes of transport in terms of these factors. So, if the sender is interested in speed, then the main choice is between air and road transport. If the goal is minimum costs, a choice is made between water and pipeline transport. Most of the benefits seem to be associated with the use of road transport, which explains the increase in its share in the volume of traffic.

Assessment of modes of transport according to the criteria of large senders

Note: The most favorable indicator is 1.

1 - Speed (door-to-door delivery time) 2 - Frequency of shipments (as scheduled per day) 3 - Reliability (delivery schedules adhered to) 4 - Carrying capacity (ability to carry different cargoes) 5 - Availability (number of geographic points served) 6 - Cost (per ton-mile)

Thanks to containerization, shippers are increasingly resorting to the simultaneous use of two or more modes of transport. Containerization is the loading of goods into crates or trailers that are easy to transport from one mode of transport to another. Rail piggyback is transportation using rail and road transport, ship piggyback is transportation using water and road transport, "rail-ship" is transportation using water and rail transport, "air highway" is transportation using air and road transport. Any mixed mode of transportation provides the sender with certain benefits. For example, a rail piggyback is cheaper purely road transport and at the same time provides flexibility and convenience.

Characteristics of the main modes of transport (*) TABLE

The total flow of world foreign trade cargo flows in intercontinental communications:

1979 - 3.7 billion tons 1988 - 3.2 billion tons

The maritime mode of transport provides transportation for more than 80% of the volume of international trade. Cargo owners pay to ship owners in the form of freight for the transportation of goods in international maritime traffic $ 105 - 110 billion annually, which is approximately 7% of the value of world exports.

The main part of the international maritime cargo flows are bulk liquid and bulk cargoes: Crude oil (about 1000 million tons per year), oil products (300 million tons), iron ore (300 million tons), coal (270 million tons). tons), grain (200 million tons).

International maritime communications

The main international agreement that determines the relationship between the parties to the contract of carriage by sea and the legal status of the bill of lading is the Brussels Convention on the Unification of Certain Rules on the Bill of Lading of 1924 (The Hague Rules). The Brussels Protocol of 1968 made some changes to this convention. Currently, more than 70 states participate in the Brussels Convention. The main attention in the Hague Rules is given to the issue of the responsibility of the sea carrier for the cargo.

Taking into account the criticism of a number of provisions of the Brussels Convention of 1924 by cargo owners of different countries, especially developing ones, in 1978 the UN Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, known as the Hamburg Rules, was adopted. Although the new convention has not yet entered into force, it nevertheless has a significant impact on the practice of international maritime transport.

Maritime transportation of passengers and baggage until recently was regulated international convention on the unification of certain rules relating to the carriage of passengers by sea of 1961. In 1987, a new convention on the carriage by sea of passengers, their luggage, vehicles and hand luggage (the Athens Convention) came into force.

International river communications

A set of issues related to the organization of international transportation along the Danube River is regulated by the Bratislava Agreements concluded by the river shipping companies of the Danube countries. The participants of the first of them - the Agreement on general conditions transportation of goods along the Danube River in 1955 were the shipping companies of Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. In 1966, river shipping companies of Yugoslavia joined this agreement, and in 1968 - Austria and Germany. The next step was the conclusion in 1978 by these shipping companies of the International Agreement on General Conditions for the Transport of Containers on the Danube River. In 1979, the same shipping companies entered into an agreement on international freight rates.

International air services

Among the international agreements on air transport is the convention for the unification of certain rules relating to international air transport, signed in Warsaw in 1929 and supplemented subsequently by protocols: The Hague of 1955, Guatemala of 1971 and Montreal of 1975. Most countries of the world participate in it.

The Warsaw Convention applies to scheduled air services. The legal basis of the agreement on air transportation in non-scheduled (charter) services is the provisions of the Guadalajara Convention on the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to International Carriage by Air of 1961.

International rail connections

The most universal multilateral agreements on international railway communications are the Berne Conventions on the Carriage of Goods (abbreviated as CIM) and on the Carriage of Passengers (IPC), originally concluded at the end of the last 17th century between several European countries. Subsequently, they were revised many times. Currently, there is a single Convention on Rail Transportation, as amended in 1980 (COTIF), containing the combined text of the Berne Conventions. The majority of European and a number of Asian and African countries are members of the Berne Conventions.

International road connections

This type of communication is regulated by the Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR) and the European Agreement on International Road Transport dangerous goods(ADR), which entered into force in 1961 and 1968, respectively. Most of the countries are parties to these agreements.

In order to simplify customs procedures in international road communications of European countries in 1959, the Customs Convention on the International Carriage of Goods with the Application of an International Road Transport Carnet (TIR, TIR Convention) was concluded. In 1975, its new edition was adopted.

International mixed messages

In the 1970s, within the framework of several international organizations, a draft agreement on a direct multimodal transport agreement was being developed. As a result, in 1980 the UN Convention on International Multimodal Transport of Goods was adopted.

Organization of international transportation

The main provisions that determine the organization and conditions for the carriage of goods and passengers in international communications are contained in transport conventions and international agreements. Questions legal regulation transportation is also the content of many bilateral agreements concluded at the interstate level or between the transport representatives of the two countries. Finally, these issues are often regulated by the domestic transport legislation of individual countries. But the lack of international regulation of the transportation of goods and passengers does not prevent carriers and cargo owners (passengers) from entering into relations regarding international transportation.

Maritime transport can rightfully be considered the most versatile mode of transport specialized in servicing international trade. Here the main legal institutions were born and developed. organizational forms international transportation of goods and passengers.

The development of the system of legal relations between the participants in the transportation process on other modes of transport took place under the greater or lesser influence of the international practice of maritime merchant shipping. Therefore, when studying the issues of organizing transportation in international communications, it is advisable to pay special attention to this practice.

In international shipping, two forms of transportation organization have developed - linear (regular) and tramp (irregular).

International liner shipping. International liner communications are organized by maritime carriers in stable geographic areas of international trade in finished industrial products, semi-finished products, foodstuffs and other goods. International lines connect the main world economic centers (Western Europe, North America and the Far East) and these centers with other regions. A feature of liner shipping is the anchoring of ships in a given direction and their regular calls at certain ports according to a pre-announced schedule. Transportation is paid by consignors at the rates of the tariff established by carriers. Linear tariffs are stable over a long period of time.

The volume of services provided by sea liner carriers to shippers and consignees is much larger than in tramp shipping. Typically, sea liner carriers assume the obligation to pay the cost of loading goods at the port of departure and unloading at the port of destination. Additional costs of shipowners related to the specifics of liner conditions are reimbursed in the liner shipping tariffs. A specific interpretation of the liner conditions of carriage is given in the pro forma of the liner bills of lading.

International liner transportation is formalized by a bill of lading issued by the sea carrier to the consignor at the time the cargo is transferred to the carrier. By its legal nature, a bill of lading is evidence of acceptance by the carrier of the goods named in it. In addition, it confirms the existence of a contract of carriage between the carrier and the consignor. Finally, the bill of lading gives the shipper and other person named on it the right to dispose of the cargo and demand its release at the port of destination against the provision of this document. Thus, the bill of lading is a document of title. In recent years, the practice of international liner transportation has begun to include another transport document, the sea waybill, instead of the bill of lading. This document, which is not a document of title, speeds up the procedure for the delivery of goods at the port of destination.

International tramp shipping. Unlike liner shipping, ships in tramp shipping are operated on an irregular basis. They are not assigned to certain destinations, but move freely from one section of the freight market to another, depending on the demand for tonnage and the supply of cargo. The price of transportation and other commercial conditions are established for each flight or several flights on the basis of an agreement.

The contract of carriage by sea (ship chartering contract) in tramp shipping is concluded between the sea carrier (charterer) and the consignor or consignee (charterer), has the form of a charter. In most cases, this contract is concluded with the help of an intermediary or a freight broker.

Any charter contains a number of mandatory conditions relating to the ship, cargo, freight, the procedure for paying for stevedore work, dispatch, demurrage.

In international tramp shipping, the carrier usually issues a bill of lading which, among other things, governs the relationship between the carrier and the consignee, who is not the charterer.

It should be noted that international practice has not created legal act(convention, agreement) governing matters relating to the content or form of the charter. The main source of law in relation to charters is the national legislation of the respective countries.

Topic 8. International transportation

§ 1. The concept and types of international transportation. Features of legal regulation

§ 2. International air transport.

§ 3. International rail transport

§ 4. International road transport

§ 5. International maritime transport

§ 6. International multimodal transport

The concept and types of international transportation. Features of legal regulation

The concept of international transportation. In science, there are a number of definitions of international transportation, since there is no single definition in national regulatory and international acts. International shipping- this is such transportation of goods, passengers and baggage, which is carried out at least between two states in accordance with the conditions provided for by interstate agreements.

This definition is quite approximate. The question remains whether international transportation from the territory of one state to the territory of the same state, but transit through the territory of another state (for example, transportation from Moscow to Kaliningrad through the territory of one of the Baltic countries). In a number of Conventions it is noted that such transportation will be international, provided that it stops in the territory of that other state.

Thus, in accordance with Russian legislation on road transport, a stopover on the territory of a foreign state is not a mandatory criterion for classifying road transport as international transport.

It should be noted that international transport agreements provide offline definitions concerning international transport by certain modes of transport in relation to various objects of transport, applicable only to transport governed by these conventions. If the carriage is not subject to the relevant Convention, its international character shall be determined in accordance with the applicable law. For example, according to the Warsaw Convention of 1929, transportation in which the place of departure and destination are located on the territory of the same state party is considered international if the agreed stopover is provided for on the territory of another state, even if this state is not a party to the Convention (paragraph 2 article 1). Carriage without such a stopover is not considered international within the meaning of the Warsaw Convention.

The question of classifying transportation as international transportation only remains controversial if it is regulated by international agreements. According to some authors, in the absence of an international agreement, border crossing transportation is not international and is regulated by national legislation. According to the logic of these authors, if a country is not a party to transport conventions, then it does not carry out international transportation. Both the Conventions and the national law of countries have conflict of law rules that determine the law applicable to carriage. This is not about national, but international transportation, which, for a number of reasons, is governed by the law chosen on the basis of conflict of laws rules. With regard to national transportation, the question of conflict of laws is not at all. In particular, one of these reasons is the lack of regulation of the disputed issue in the relevant Convention. Another reason may be the non-participation of a particular country in the Convention governing the transport in question. Thus, the 1980 UN Convention on International Multimodal Transport of Goods has not yet entered into force, but this does not mean that the agreements on multimodal transport of goods from one country to another, concluded by the parties, are not international. Another thing is that border crossing requires agreements between the states that own the borders. With regard to the regulation of international transport contracts, they may well be regulated on the basis of conflict of laws rules (national or unified conventional ones), which was done before the adoption of the relevant Conventions. Currently, international transport by all modes of transport is regulated by a number of Conventions with a large number of participants, and in practice they are mostly regulated by international agreements.

feature international transport is the definition of a foreign element that makes the transport international. The traditional classification of foreign elements, which characterizes the relationship as international (cross-border), is inapplicable here. The subject of transportation relations is not such a foreign element. For example, a foreign company transports goods within Russia. The shipment is not international. Transportation is international if, in accordance with the contract, it must be carried out from one state to another. The foreign element is inherent in the process of movement, which is the essence of transport activity.

In order to recognize an international carriage, it is not necessary that the cargo or passenger actually crossed territorial or customs borders states. It is enough to conclude a contract of international carriage. For example, if the cargo is lost at the point of departure from State A to State B, the transportation is qualified as international, but there is no border crossing. Thus, one should not equate the conclusion of a contract of international carriage with its implementation.

Types of international transportation. As well as domestic transportation, they differ depending on the types of transport and the object of transportation.

By means of transport there are: international road, rail, air, river and sea transportation; mixed transport;

According to the object of transportation, there are: transportation of goods, passengers and luggage.

Transit, mixed, container and combined transportations have certain specifics.

Features of legal regulation. The regulation of international transportation is carried out by international agreements, national legislation and customs that have developed in the practice of transportation relations.

Legal regulation of various types of international transportation has its own characteristics. However, it should be noted general principles such regulation.

The main importance in the legal regulation of international transportation belongs to international treaties. Only in the field of road, sea and river transport there are more than 110 interstate and intergovernmental (multilateral and bilateral) agreements, to which Russia is a party.

International treaties mainly contain substantive norms. The conflict rules of conventions usually concern issues not regulated by substantive rules. As a rule, they refer to the law of the country of the court. Russia is a party to most of the Transport Conventions.

In international treaties for all types of transportation, practically, albeit in different ways, the same range of issues is resolved.

First of all, these are the requirements for shipping documents.

In all types of international transportation, issues such as carrier liability and the establishment of its limits, the distribution of the burden of proving guilt, fixing the grounds for exemption from liability of the carrier, statute of limitations and making claims. The burden of proving one's innocence rests primarily with the carrier. The parties are not entitled to reduce or exclude, but are entitled to increase the liability of the carrier. If there is intent or gross fault of the carrier or its personnel in causing harm, the limits of liability, as a rule, do not apply.

feature transportation relations is that they are closely intertwined with the relations of ownership and other real rights to the vehicle, obligations to cause harm, labor relations of the carrier with members of the vehicle crew, etc. The international nature of transportation creates additional difficulties in qualifying legal relations as transportation and determining the applicable law to various types of relations related to transportation, since various conflict-of-law bindings are applied to them.

feature contracts of carriage is that in many countries domestic transport is subject to the same rules as international transport, i.e. standards set out in international conventions ( infiltration unified norms of private international law into national legal systems).

In contracts of international carriage apply various collision bindings: the law of the place of departure or destination; the law of the place where the contract was concluded; flag law, etc.

In accordance with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation the law chosen by the parties (Article 1210) applies to contracts of carriage by all modes of transport. If the parties have not chosen the law, the law of the country with which the contract is most closely connected (clause 2 of article 1211) applies. Such a right is the law of the country where the carrier has its place of residence or main place of business (subparagraph 6, paragraph 3, article 1211). It should be borne in mind that by virtue of clause 3 of article 1186 of the Civil Code, if the contract of carriage is regulated by an international agreement containing substantive rules, the choice of law with the help of conflict of laws rules is not made. Issues not settled in such conventions are resolved with the help of the conflict of law rules established in the conventions themselves, which, as a rule, refer to the national law of the country of the forum. If there are no conflict-of-laws rules in the conventions, the applicable law is determined using the conflict-of-laws rules of the country of the forum.

It should be borne in mind that, in accordance with Russian legislation (Article 800 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation), the carrier’s liability for causing harm to the life and health of a passenger is determined according to the rules of obligations due to causing harm (Chapter 59 of the Civil Code), unless the law or the contract of carriage provides for increased liability carrier. These rules will apply if Russian law is determined as the applicable law.

International transport organizations. Of great importance in the development of draft conventions, unified rules and technical regulations belongs international transport organizations. They are created by means of transport.

The most authoritative air transport is International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). It was established in accordance with the 1944 Convention as a specialized agency of the United Nations. The Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation of 1944 adopted the ICAO Charter.

The main statutory purposes of ICAO include:

Ensuring the safe and orderly development of international civil aviation throughout the world;

Organization and coordination of international cooperation on all issues of civil aviation, including international air transportation. One of the goals of ICAO is to prevent economic losses caused by unreasonable competition.

18 annexes to the 1944 Convention are ICAO documents - international aviation regulations (standards, recommended practices, procedures).

Within the framework of ICAO, a number of conventions have been developed and adopted, including the Montreal Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Air Transportation of 1999.

In area maritime transport valid International Maritime Organization (IMO), established in 1949. It is a specialized agency within the UN system. Currently, its members are more than 160 states, including Russia. Within the framework of this organization, the Athens Convention on the Carriage of Passengers and Their Luggage by Sea of 1974, the International Convention to Facilitate International Maritime Navigation of 1965, and others have been developed and adopted.

In 1905 formed Baltic and International Maritime Organization (BIMCO). Its main task is to prepare and review pro forma charters and other transport documentation; edition standard forms shipping documents. Organizations in the field of water transport are the most numerous. There are more than 100 of them.

On railway transport: Intergovernmental Organization for International Carriage by Rail (OTIF), Council for Railway Transport of the Commonwealth Member States, Organization for Cooperation between Railways (OSJD).

In the field road transport function:

Road Accident Prevention Organization (ROAPO), International Road Federation (IAF), International Road Transport Union (IRU), etc.

On river transport there are such well-known organizations as the Danube Commission and the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine.

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Introduction

1. International shipping

2. Essence and types of international transport operations

3. Scheme of the process of delivery of goods in international trade

4. Conventions and agreements on international transport

5. Characteristics of the modes of transport used in international transportation

6. Choice of mode of transport

7. Evaluation of modes of transport according to the criteria of large senders

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Transport services for international economic relations.

1. International shipping

International cargo communications. In any foreign trade transaction, the sold goods fall into the sphere of international circulation. With the help of means of transport, goods move from the place of its production to the point of consumption. At the same time, transport, as it were, continues the process of production of goods within the sphere of circulation, adding to its initial cost (price) the cost (price) of the produced transport products during the movement.

The bulk of international maritime cargo flows are bulk liquid and bulk cargoes: Crude oil (about 1000 million tons per year), oil products (300 million tons), iron ore (300 million tons), coal (270 million tons). tons), grain (200 million tons). From other maritime trade cargoes, the so-called general, or packaged-piece cargoes, that is, finished industrial products, semi-finished products, food, stand out. The annual volume of their traffic is estimated at 700 million tons. This is the most valuable part of the world trade turnover (about 70% in value).

Air transport has recently become a serious competitor to maritime transport in the intercontinental transportation of valuable cargo. Rail, river and road transport are widely used in intracontinental foreign trade, as well as in the transportation of export and import goods through the territory of the countries of sellers and countries of buyers. Pipeline systems play an important role in the international trade in oil and gas.

Air transport, having an undeniable advantage over other modes of transport in the speed of delivery of passengers on long-distance travel routes, has firmly taken a leading position in international passenger communications. Only during the 1980s, the carrying capacity of air transport on international routes doubled due to the commissioning of a large number of wide-body jet aircraft with a high level of passenger comfort, on the one hand, and with improved energy efficiency and transportation costs, on the other.

2. Essence and types of international transport operations

3. Delivery Process Diagramgoods in international trade

Transport operations in their direct meaning are understood as ensuring the transportation of goods in sections A B, B - C, C - D. These operations are carried out under an agreement between cargo owners and carriers of the relevant types of public transport, which includes vehicles and permanent devices belonging to transport organizations provided under contracts to cargo owners.

International transport operations also include the transportation of passengers in messages between different states. Services for the delivery of passengers in international communications are bought and sold in the respective transport markets. An important role is played by travel agencies and other similar organizations that have close ties with air, sea, river, road and rail transport enterprises.

4. conventions and agreementsknowledge about international transport

States interested in expanding the activities of their national transport enterprises in international traffic have always sought international cooperation in order to develop uniform (unified) conditions for the transport of goods and passengers, as well as harmonize legal norms related to the regime for the location of vehicles and personnel serving them within jurisdiction of the contracting parties and on many other issues. As a result of these efforts, a significant number of international agreements on individual modes of transport, called “transport conventions”, have been concluded at the interstate level. In some cases, multilateral agreements on international transportation are concluded at the level of transport enterprises of different countries.

5. Characteristics of modes of transport used in international transportation

Railway transport

Railways are the most cost-effective mode of transport for the transportation of wagon loads in bulk of coal, ore, sand, agricultural and forest products - over long distances. Recently, railroads have begun to increase the number of services to meet the specifications of customers. New equipment was created for more efficient handling of certain categories of goods, platforms for the transportation of car trailers (travel piggyback), services began to be provided en route, such as redirecting already shipped goods to another destination right on the route and processing goods during transportation.

Water transport

The cost of transporting bulky, low-cost, non-perishable goods such as sand, coal, grain, oil, and metal ores by water is very small. On the other hand, water transport is the slowest and is often affected by the weather.

Automobile transport

Pipeline transport

Air Transport

6. Selecting the type of transport

7. Evaluation of modes of transport bycriteria for large senders

Note: The most favorable indicator is 1.

Thanks to containerization, shippers are increasingly resorting to the simultaneous use of two or more modes of transport. Containerization is the loading of goods into crates or trailers that are easy to transport from one mode of transport to another. Rail piggyback is transportation using rail and road transport, ship piggyback is transportation using water and road transport, "rail-ship" is transportation using water and rail transport, "air highway" is transportation using air and road transport. Any mixed mode of transportation provides the sender with certain benefits. For example, a rail-mounted piggyback is less expensive than a pure road transport and at the same time provides flexibility and convenience.

Characteristics of the main modes of transport (*) TABLE

The total flow of world foreign trade cargo flows in intercontinental communications:

1979 - 3.7 billion tons 1988 - 3.2 billion tons

International maritime communications

Maritime transport of passengers and baggage until recently was regulated by the International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to the Carriage of Passengers by Sea of 1961. In 1987, a new convention on the carriage by sea of passengers, their luggage, vehicles and hand luggage (the Athens Convention) came into force.

International river communications

A set of issues related to the organization of international transportation along the Danube River is regulated by the Bratislava Agreements concluded by the river shipping companies of the Danube countries. The participants of the first of them - the Agreement on General Conditions for the Transportation of Goods on the Danube River in 1955 were the shipping companies of Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. In 1966, river shipping companies of Yugoslavia joined this agreement, and in 1968 - Austria and Germany. The next step was the conclusion in 1978 by these shipping companies of the International Agreement on General Conditions for the Transport of Containers on the Danube River. In 1979, the same shipping companies entered into an agreement on international freight rates.

International air services

International rail connections

International road connections

This type of traffic is governed by the Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR) and the European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), which entered into force in 1961 and 1968 respectively. Most of the countries are parties to these agreements.

International mixed messages

Conclusion

The main provisions that determine the organization and conditions for the carriage of goods and passengers in international communications are contained in transport conventions and international agreements. The issues of legal regulation of transportation are also the content of many bilateral agreements concluded at the interstate level or between transport representatives of the two countries. Finally, these issues are often regulated by the domestic transport legislation of individual countries. But the lack of international regulation of the transportation of goods and passengers does not prevent carriers and cargo owners (passengers) from entering into relations regarding international transportation.

Maritime transport can rightfully be considered the most versatile mode of transport specialized in servicing international trade. Here the main legal institutions and organizational forms of international transportation of goods and passengers were born and developed.

In international shipping, two forms of transportation organization have developed - linear (regular) and tramp (irregular).

Any charter contains a number of mandatory conditions relating to the vessel, cargo, freight, the procedure for paying for stevedore work, dispatch, demurrage.

In international tramp shipping, the carrier usually issues a bill of lading which, among other things, governs the relationship between the carrier and the consignee, who is not the charterer.

It should be noted that in international practice, no legal act (convention, agreement) has been created to regulate issues related to the content or form of the charter. The main source of law in relation to charters is the national legislation of the respective countries.

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List of used literature

1. Ponomareva N.V. Organization of transportation, economics and management in transport.

2. Tarasenka Alexey. Transport management.

3. Kleshch S.A. Organization, planning and management of motor transport enterprises.

4. Tarasenka Alexey. Organization and management of passenger transportation.

5. Sharma Raj. Organization of the working day of the head, time management.

6. Chernyshova E.V. Organization, planning and management of the enterprise.

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International transport links

The transport factor has always been considered as an important prerequisite for the intensification of world trade. Great geographical discoveries of the 16th-18th centuries. were directly due to the growth of maritime shipping, which gave a powerful impetus to the development of world trade. Having mastered the power of steam and electrical energy in the 19th century, mankind significantly improved the means of transport. Steamships, railways made a real "revolution" in transport. All this, in turn, contributed to the further development of world economic ties.

International economic relations cause huge flows of movement of goods from one country to another. By her own transport network formed within the framework of national economic systems. All types of transport (with the exception of maritime transport) have, first of all, on-farm purposes for their functioning. However, they also serve international transportation.

As international trade expands and deepens, international transport links also develop. The most important factors of their constant growth and qualitative improvement are:

First, the pace and volume of foreign economic activity. They grow from year to year, causing an increase in the volume of transportation work of transport;

Secondly, scientific and technical progress, the use of the achievements of which directly affects the quality of the vehicles used.

During the 20th century Technologically and organizationally, transport has changed dramatically as a means of delivering foreign trade goods. This is reflected in the fact that over the past century, transport costs per unit of cargo transported have decreased by 12 times. This is a direct consequence of the scientific and technological revolution of the second half of the 20th century. In general, there is a trend towards a further reduction in transport costs and the share of transport in GDP. If in 1970 the share of transport in world GDP exceeded 10%, then in 2006 the share of transport decreased to 5%. In economically developed countries, the share of transport in GDP is 4-7%, in developing countries - from 7 to 17%.

Thirdly, the most important factor modern development international transport links globalization of the world economy. The conditions of globalization require the creation of a single global transport network. Its main components are: a system of multimodal transport carried out by many modes of transport in a single technological process. Creation of a unified global container system, which greatly facilitates the transshipment and clearance of goods, speeding up their delivery. Formation of international transport corridors. Which provide transportation by various modes of transport between individual countries and continents. The management of such transportations is undertaken by international alliances of freight forwarding companies from different countries.

Transport service of international economic relations is carried out in two directions: transportation of goods and transportation of passengers. We will deal mainly with the consideration of the first direction, because it is directly related to the movement of the results of foreign trade contracts. Over the past 25-30 years, there has been a trend towards a reduction in the volume of transported goods. At the end of the 70s, the total tonnage of international traffic was estimated at 4.5-4.6 billion tons. In 2003, the volume of international traffic fell to 3.6 billion tons. This fact does not indicate a drop in the pace of international trade.

During 1980-2007 the growth rate of world exports did not decrease at all, but increased. Between 1980 and 1990 the increase was 21%; in 1990-2000 – by 28%; in 2000-2007 – by 38%. The reduction in the load capacity of foreign trade transportation is evidence of a qualitative improvement in the range of traded goods. The share of finished, science-intensive products is growing rapidly, and the share of fuel and raw materials as the most “transport-intensive” is declining. This is a long-term global trend.

At the same time, let us pay attention to the fact that in recent years (starting from 2004) the share of fuel and raw materials in the structure of world exports has slightly increased from 11.8% in 2000 to 13.6% in 2007. The reason for this provisions - a sharp increase prices for energy carriers and raw materials, primarily for oil and gas. This led to a significant increase in demand for these goods and to a certain extent influenced the increase in the carrying capacity of foreign trade goods.

Among all modes of transport, maritime transport is the most common in international trade. It provides transportation for almost 65% of the volume of international freight traffic. For the period 1950-2006. the volume of maritime transport has increased more than 12 times. The main sea routes pass through the Atlantic Ocean (about 50% of cargo turnover) and through the water area Pacific Ocean, where the influence of the economic successes of China and the countries of Southeast Asia is increasing. These transportation routes account for about 30% of cargo turnover.

The total tonnage of the world navy in 2005 it was estimated at 880 million tons. Over the past 10-15 years, there have been qualitative changes in the structure of world tonnage associated with an increase in the share of container ships in comparison with bulk cargo ships, amounting to more than 18% of the total tonnage in 2006.

The main manufacturers and owners of ships are firms from developed countries. World leader in shipbuilding South Korea followed by Japan, Greece, USA. The specificity of maritime international transportation is that the ships do not sail under the flags of their own, but of the states, but under the "convenient" flags of the countries " open registration”, which act as maritime transport offshore. These countries register ships of other countries, providing them with significant tax and registration benefits. More than 70% of ships from around the world sail under the flags of the Bahamas, Cyprus, Liberia, Malta, Panama, Jamaica.

At high rates in the last two decades of the 20th century. the market for the charter of sea vessels developed. During 1975-1985. the volume of freight operations decreased slightly. At the beginning of the 21st century the volume of freight operations began to increase, amounting in 2005 to more than 360 billion dollars a year. This, in turn, reflects the growth in the volume of shipping work of maritime transport.

Table 1

Dynamics of the structure of international transportation of goods (in %)

Kind of transport
Nautical	51,9	62,7	62,1	60,5	63,5	63,7
Railway	30,8	18,9	16,0	14,3	11,7	11,5
Automotive	7,5	8,0	8,3	10,2	10,5	10,5
Inland waterway	5,6	3,0	2,7	2,9	2,3	2,3
Air	0,1	0,1	0,1	0,2	0,2	0,3
Pipeline	4,4	7,3	10,8	11,5	11,8	11,7
Total traffic volume (trln.t/km)	6,8	28,9	45,7	49,5	50,3	53,1

Rail transport accounts for a relatively small share of international traffic. But historically, it has secured a solid second place after maritime transport. In 2005, the volume of foreign trade cargo brought by railways on a global scale amounted to more than 1.6 billion tons. The specificity of railway communications is that they are exclusively intracontinental in nature. On average, the length of the route compared to sea transportation is almost twice as short. This is evidence that the cost of rail transportation is somewhat higher. Than marine. The advantages of rail transport in comparison with sea transport include relative independence from weather conditions.

The world railway network as a whole took shape as early as the 19th century. At present, the length of railways in the world is about 940 thousand km, of which 240 thousand km are in the USA, 86 thousand km are in Russia, 65 thousand km are in India, 55 thousand km are in China, 50 thousand km - in Germany, etc. For rail transport, as a means of international communications, the trend is towards a constant reduction in the share of traffic and a reduction in the length of railway lines. In the USA, for example, the length of the railway network in the 1920s was 409 thousand km, and by the beginning of the 21st century. - 240 thousand km. The global trend in the activity of railways is such that their importance is constantly decreasing. The volume of freight turnover is steadily falling by 1-1.5% per year. For the period 1990-2005. freight turnover of foreign trade transportations decreased by 12%.

According to experts' forecasts, for the period up to 2015, a further reduction in rail traffic is expected, especially for economically developed countries. For states with a large territory (Russia, Kazakhstan, China, India), the importance of railway communication as an important form of cargo transportation will be protected.

Road transport is a rapidly developing mode of transport. Its share in international transportation is steadily growing. But in terms of cargo turnover, it is noticeably inferior to sea and rail transport. Its specificity is transportation over short distances, the organization of non-reloading delivery of goods "from door to door" in sufficient short time. We note the high cost of road transportation due to the rapid growth in world prices for oil and gasoline (in 2005-2006 alone, this growth amounted to 38-45%).

Road transport is widely used in cargo transportation in developed countries (USA, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, etc.). Let us especially note the growing role of motor transport in Europe. For intercountry transportation of goods by cars within the EU in 2003. accounted for more than 30% of the volume of cargo turnover. For the efficient use of vehicles, the quality of roads plays an important role. Calculations show that fuel consumption per 100 km of run on paved roads is 15-20% lower than on unpaved roads. Intensity of vehicle use in the US and countries Western Europe much higher than in Russia. Because the former have a large and high-quality car park plus excellent roads. Total length Russian roads with a hard surface is 520 thousand km. This is 4.5 times less than in the US and 3 times less than in Western Europe. In the coming years, Russia will significantly reduce the shortage of high-quality paved roads, since it is planned to increase their length by more than 30% by 2015.

Air transport is mainly used for the transport of passengers. Its share in international transportation is extremely small and is practically negligible in relation to other modes of transport. (0.2%). Over the past 30-35 years, the volume of passenger traffic on international airlines has increased by more than 40 times, and cargo turnover by more than 100 times.

It should be noted that the countries that produce the airliners themselves have the largest fleets of aircraft. These are the USA, Russia, France, Canada, Germany. The remaining countries are net importers of aviation products of these countries. In 2005, the total volume of international cargo transportation by air transport amounted to 185 billion tons/km, and the number of passengers carried was about 1.6 billion people. Air transport is the fastest transport, so its role in passenger traffic will grow steadily in the future. At the same time, it is of little use for freight traffic purely technologically and, most importantly, air transport is the most expensive mode of transport.

Pipeline transport is the fastest growing mode of transport. It has a specific character. This specificity is associated with its very limited use only when used in the transportation of oil and oil products, natural gas. The pipeline is an economically profitable transport. Calculations show that the transportation of oil and gas over a distance of more than 2000 km is the most economical form of transportation. The total length of main pipelines in the world is over 550 thousand km. The first place belongs to the USA, the second place belongs to Russia. Our country has about 70,000 km of oil pipelines and 150,000 km of gas pipelines. This type of transport is developing very intensively in Russia and has a huge impact on foreign economic relations.

In the future for 2015, the construction of a number of pipelines is being launched in 5 directions: the creation of the Baltic pipeline system, the integration of two existing highways: Druzhba and Adria, the Yamal-Europe gas pipeline, the North European gas pipeline along the bottom of the Baltic Sea, the South Black Sea direction, East Siberian (Angarsk-Nakhodka-Datsin).

Organization of international transportation.

The process of transportation of goods, which are moved on the basis of concluded foreign trade contracts, consists of three sections of movement. The first segment of the movement is the transportation of cargo across the territory of the sending country. From the point of shipment of goods to the border. The second segment of the movement is the transportation of cargo through the territories of another country. From the border of the country - the sender of the cargo to the border of the country - the recipient of the cargo. This section is called transit. This option may not be available when foreign trade counterparties are neighboring countries that have common border together. In this case, there is no hop. The third segment of the movement is the transportation of cargo through the territory of the recipient country. From the border to the point of destination of the cargo.

Since the main type of transportation of foreign trade goods is sea transport, we will consider the process of organizing international transportation using the example of sea transport. The content of the concept of "international transport operations" includes several successively interrelated stages:

1) Vehicle freight. As a rule, shippers and consignees do not have their own vehicles. Therefore, they must be rented (chartered) from other companies that have these funds. In the process of implementing international transport links, an important place is occupied by the freight services market. The largest exporters in the world market do not have a full range of vehicles. Countries such as the USA, Germany, France, China, etc., use the intermediary of freight companies for 80-90% of the volume of shipping. In 2005, the value of freight transactions was over $200 billion. The main providers of freight services are Japanese, German, Greek, Panamanian, Liberian and other companies.

2) Delivery of cargo to mainline vehicles. These services are provided by local transport companies, which mainly have vehicles for the delivery of exported goods to ports of departure to foreign recipients, already on the direct line. Such a section of transportation from the supplier company to the main transport route is absolutely natural and necessary. Therefore, the demand for this kind of service is constant and transport automobile companies work in this direction.

3) The implementation of the international transportation process itself on the main trunk line of communication. The economic results of transportation depend on how the conditions of transportation affect the price of the delivered goods, to what extent transportation costs affect the effectiveness of a foreign trade contract. Here we single out the main factor influencing the result of the transportation process - distance.

4) Transportation of transported goods by other modes of transport. Essentially we are talking O intermediary services in transit transportation and transshipment of goods from one mode of transport to another. In any international transportation, goods are repeatedly (sometimes more than 10 times) sequentially transferred from one carrier to another. It is much more economical to carry out such a procedure through the mediation of some company that takes on a range of services for transshipment of goods, their storage in cargo terminals in the time interval between transportation by one transport, and then by another. Here the question of protecting the commercial interests of cargo owners comes to the fore. After all, goods during long-term transportation are actually alienated from their owners and are under the control of carriers. Therefore, the process of cargo transportation must be accompanied by insurance. Therefore, the largest insurance companies, such as the Institute of London Insurers, General Insurance Corporation, United Mills Agency and many others are necessary intermediaries providing insurance services.

5) Forwarding services are an important part of the complex process of foreign trade transportation of goods. After all, the cargo owner cannot have his representatives in all points where operations with his cargo are carried out. It would be extremely expensive for any foreign trade firm to have a network of representative offices in many places. Therefore, as a rule, cargo owners use services to ensure reliable escort of goods to their destination. Usually, forwarders take on not only the functions of cargo escort, but also the organization of transit, transshipment to other vehicles, organization of cargo operations, execution of transport and accompanying documents, settlement of freight, containerization of goods, settlements with operators of cargo terminals.

The organization of international transportation is a very complicated procedure. Bearing in mind that the main mode of transport in international communications is maritime, let's take a closer look at the principles of organizing the transportation process. Many of these principles (sometimes the terminology itself) were subsequently adopted in other types of transportation. The content of a foreign trade contract contains clauses that reveal the possible forms and content of foreign trade transportation. Specific points for the implementation of the transportation process are the subject of bilateral international agreements. Here, specific legal relations of the cooperating parties are developed and fixed.

In international shipping, there are two main forms of transportation organization: linear (regular) and tramp (irregular). The line organization provides vehicles transportation on the main, large geographical directions of international trade. Vessels are assigned to certain routes for a long time (3-5 years). There are large shipping companies Japan, USA, UK, France, Canada. Liner carriers provide customers with a full range of transportation services, including not only delivery to the port of destination, but also loading and unloading of goods, cargo transshipment, storage, transshipment to transit lines. All this leads to certain savings in transportation costs. Liner transportation is issued by sea bill of lading. This document legally formalizes the right to dispose of the cargo during transportation by the carrier and is a confirmation of the shipment of the exported goods. The bill of lading is considered as the main shipping document that transfers the right to dispose of the goods to the carrier and can be considered as means of payment or means of pledge (guarantee) of fulfillment of obligations.

Trump shipping is developing on minor sea routes. Here the vessels are not assigned to certain routes. In contrast to a liner organization, transportation rates are less stable here, which fluctuate depending on supply and demand in the freight market. Only freight intermediaries operate here, offering vessels for the carriage of goods on a lease basis.

The transportation of foreign trade cargo in tramp shipping is usually carried out by using the charter of sea vessels, which are offered by intermediary companies. The contract of carriage by sea is in the form of a charter (short-term lease). There are the following forms of charter agreements:

Charter for one flight, such an agreement provides for payment for the carriage of goods in a specified direction from the cargo owner to the buyer;

Freight of the general contract under which the transportation is serviced a large number cargo in one direction for an extended period of time when the terms of a foreign trade contract are extended;

Freight on time charter terms, when a vessel is rented for a certain period of time, and thus it allows servicing the transportation of different cargoes on a given direction for more than one flight;

Spot charter - an agreement on the immediate readiness of the vessel by a certain date; the freight price of immediate availability is the base value in relation to freight prices on other terms;

Prompt charter - a charter agreement on the preparation of a vessel for the carriage of goods for future periods;

Bareboat charter is a charter contract for the carriage of goods without the provision of a crew.

Contracts for the charter of ships for the carriage of goods in tramp shipping are concluded between the carrier company providing transportation services, on the one hand, and the consignee or consignor, on the other. Such contracts are concluded with the participation of a freight intermediary (broker). Freight intermediation is carried out by small companies that specialize exclusively in freight. As a rule, these are companies from countries with "convenient" flags. In Europe, these are companies from Cyprus, Gibraltar, Malta, Spain; in America - companies from Barbados, Bermuda, Panama, Jamaica; in Africa - companies from Liberia, Morocco, Nigeria, etc.

Basic conditions of transport service of foreign trade operations.

The meaning of the basic conditions for the transportation of foreign trade goods is due to the complexity of relations between the supplier and the consumer, the presence of a large number of intermediaries and the very different economic conditions of the participants in the foreign trade agreement. As you know, in order to facilitate the interaction between the importer and exporter, the International Chamber of Commerce in 1936 developed standard forms and positions of separate conditions of the foreign trade contract. This introduces elements of transparency, organization and unification into the implementation of the contract. The basic conditions relate to the development of foreign trade prices for this contract, delivery times, terms of payment and settlements, insurance conditions and other important items.

The basic conditions are also defined in such an important clause of the foreign trade contract as the conditions for the transportation of goods. These conditions are also developed by the International chamber of commerce and approved by the Vienna Convention of 1980. Because of this, they have a certain unifying value and, as a result, universal international recognition and distribution. The content of the basic conditions for the transportation of goods and the most important terms found in foreign trade contracts are contained in the code international rules interpretation of foreign trade terms (Incoterms), which were also developed by the International Chamber of Commerce in 1936. These rules are regularly adjusted and updated, reflecting all the changes and trends that are characteristic of the current stage of development of international trade. The current version of Incoterms 2000 is valid.

The rules of Incoterms-2000 fix 13 basic conditions of transport services for foreign trade operations. They define the basic rights and obligations of the parties in the process of transporting goods. However, these positions are considered only as a basis for specific conditions that should be "shaken" in the course of negotiations between the cooperating parties. Negotiations form a specific distribution of transport costs between the exporter and importer, delivery of cargo, its reloading to other modes of transport, with packaging and labeling, with insurance along the way.

table 2

Basic terms of delivery of goods in the course of transportation

If you look closely at Table 2, you will notice that all the basic conditions are grouped into four groups. This grouping reveals who falls to bear the main shares of the costs of transportation, loading, insurance and customs clearance. In the basic conditions, the initial positions of the parties are fixed, which imply the principles of distribution of transport costs. In the process of negotiations, the parties to the contract finally distribute the costs of transport services.

1) EXW - (ex work) a condition under which the supplier ships goods from the enterprise (warehouse). All costs for the delivery of goods, their loading and insurance are borne by the buyer. The most favorable condition from the point of view of the interests of the seller. The buyer bears all 100% of the transport costs.

2) FCA - (free carrier ...) - under this condition, the supplier of the goods is obliged to deliver the goods to the carrier. The entire volume of transportation costs is further attributed to the buyer, but part of the total costs (delivery to the carrier) is also borne by the seller, approximately in the ratio of 10-20% of the costs - to the seller, 90-80% of the costs - to the buyer.

3) FAS - (free along side ship) - this condition implies the obligation of the seller to deliver the goods to the board of the vessel chartered by the buyer. All costs and risks are borne by the seller until the goods are delivered to the ship. The edition of Incoterms-2000 assumes the imposition of customs clearance costs on the exporter.

4) FOB - (free on board) - one of the most common basic conditions. It means that the seller is obliged to deliver the goods to the port of departure, according to the contract, and load them on board the ship. In this condition, there is no longer that exclusive focus on ensuring the interests of the seller. Cumulative fare to a certain extent also fall on the seller, including the costs of customs clearance.

5) CFR - (cost and freight) - according to this basic condition, the seller is obliged to bear the costs associated with the delivery of the exported cargo to the port of departure. In this case, the seller is obliged to pay not only the cost of delivery to the port of departure, but also to charter a vessel that will carry the cargo to its destination.

6) CIF - (cost, insurance, freight) - also a very common basic condition. It is practically similar to the previous condition, but in contrast to it, the exporter attributes cargo insurance during transportation to his own account. If the contract does not provide for any additional conditions, then the marine insurance contract concerns the possibility of covering a minimum of risks. Such an agreement is concluded on the terms “free from the risk of private accident”. Those. the insurance contract covers only the risk directly during the movement of the vessel. In other cases, contracts provide for the division of insurance costs between exports and imports.

7) DES - (delivered ex ship) - a condition that implies a more or less pleasant distribution of costs for the transportation of exported goods, not counting the costs of insurance and freight. The seller bears the cost of delivering the goods to the port of destination. Further, all costs associated with unloading the vessel, reloading the goods to other vehicles, paying customs duties are borne by the buyer.

8) DEQ - (delivered ex quay) - this condition resembles the previous basic condition in its content. According to this basic condition, the seller undertakes the delivery of the cargo to the port (berth) of destination plus the payment of customs duties. It is the buyer's responsibility to clear import customs, pay customs fees and other import taxes.

9) DAF - (delivered at frontier) - this condition assumes that the exporter undertakes the obligation to deliver the goods to the importer to the specified point on the border or to the specified port of destination. Here, the seller already bears a large part of the total costs compared to other basic conditions. Sometimes the parties agree on the costs of unloading the goods and insuring the risks in this regard. Here, agreements are possible that shift these costs to the exporter. The seller is paying customs duty, taxes and other charges.

10) DDP - (delivered duty paid) - the basic condition under consideration reflects the maximum obligations (costs) that fall on the supplier in the foreign trade contract. In terms of the distribution of transport costs, this condition is directly opposite to the EXW condition. The exporter, in accordance with these conditions, delivers the goods to the destination of the importer, who has cleared customs and is on board the vehicle.

11) DDU - (delivered duty un paid) - this condition is very close to the previous one. Most of the costs under this basic condition are also charged to the exporter. The exporter pays all costs necessary to deliver the goods to the destination, but without paying customs duties.

12) CPT - (carriage paid to ...) - this basis means "Freight and carriage paid to ...". This condition is similar to the CFR condition. It means that the supplier of the goods pays the cost of transportation to the destination specified in the foreign trade contract. In fact, we are talking about the condition "freight paid to the destination." The costs paid by the seller include obtaining an export license, paying for the freight of the vessel. The buyer is obliged to accept the goods at the agreed place, pay all costs for its further delivery to the final destination (except for freight).

13) CIP - (carriage and insurance paid to) this means: "Freight and transportation paid." In essence, the basic condition under consideration is similar to the “freight pay to” condition, with the addition that the seller is obliged to provide insurance against the risk of damage or destruction of the delivered goods during transportation. Under the terms of the CIP, the seller is obligated to customs clearance goods for export.

All these basic conditions are used in one way or another in the practice of foreign trade relations. They are mainly formed in relation to the conditions of transportation by sea. This is understandable, because Maritime shipping is the main form of international transport links. However, some of these conditions are used in other forms of international transportation: rail, road, air.

Similar information.

1
Content:

Introduction
1. The essence of international transport operations

3. Organization of international transportation
4. Basic conditions of transport services for foreign trade transactions
5. Legal basis transport operations
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The choice of this topic as a study can be justified by its relevance for Russia, namely, attempts to harmonize the transport system with the processes of formation and development of international transport corridors that have been intensifying recently (5-10 years):
° coordinated development of transport infrastructure with the aim of integrating Eurasian transport systems for unhindered movement across national boundaries passengers and cargo - streamlining the interaction between different modes of transport in the intermodal transport chain;
° optimization of the transport process in order to improve the quality of transportation and reduce transportation costs in the final cost of goods - creating conditions for reducing tariffs for the transportation of passengers and goods in domestic traffic by increasing the load on the domestic transport network and making better use of available reserves;
° assistance in the development of new territories and the development of cross-border cooperation, the development of new internal and international markets- increasing the mobility of the population and improving the transport accessibility of the regions;
° switching of transit and Russian foreign trade cargo flows from the ports of other countries to domestic seaports;
° increasing the attractiveness of investment projects for the development of international transport corridors - the development of international tourism and cultural ties.
1. Essence of international transport operations
Transport links are an important and indispensable component of the functioning of international economic relations. Vehicles ensure the movement of goods and services in world markets from suppliers to consumers. Functionally, transport directly serves the process of circulation, merging with it completely. Outside of transport services, it is difficult to imagine the process of circulation of goods and services.
Transportation of goods and services, as it were, continues the production process. The cost of transporting the created products is added to total costs this product and are included in the cost and price. They constitute additional costs of circulation and act as an important component of the price. At the same time, the share of transport costs in the price can be quite significant (up to 30% of the cost of production). Therefore, the success of a foreign trade contract and its economic efficiency to a large extent depend on how this or that cargo is transported, whether the most economical and fast vehicles are used for transportation.
The transport factor has always been considered as an important prerequisite for the intensification of world trade. The great geographical discoveries of the 16th-18th centuries were directly due to the growth of maritime navigation, which gave a powerful impetus to the development of world trade. Having mastered the forces of steam and electric energy in the 19th century, mankind has significantly improved the means of transport. Steamships, railways made a real revolution in transport. All this, in turn, contributed to the further development of world economic ties.
International economic relations cause huge flows of movement of goods from one country to another. The transport network itself is formed within the framework of national economic systems. All types of transport (with the exception of maritime transport) have, first of all, on-farm purposes for their functioning. However, they also serve international transportation. As international trade expands and deepens, international transport links also develop; The most important factors of their constant growth and qualitative improvement are: 1) the pace and volume of foreign economic activity;
2) scientific and technological progress, the use of the achievements of which directly affects the quality of vehicles.
Transport service of international economic relations is carried out in two directions: transportation of goods and transportation of passengers. We will consider mainly the first direction, because it is directly related to foreign trade contracts. Over the past 20-25 years, there has been a trend towards a reduction in the volume of transported goods. In the early 1970s, the total volume of international traffic was estimated at 4.5-4.6 billion tons. In 1996, the tonnage of traffic decreased to 3.8 billion tons. This fact does not indicate a drop in the pace of international trade, but changes in the structure of commodity exchange, where the share of fuel and raw materials as the most “transport-intensive” has decreased.
2. Types of transport operations
Among all modes of transport, maritime transport is the most common in international trade. This type of transport provides approximately 65% of the volume of international freight traffic. The main range of transportation is made up of liquid and bulk cargoes, i.e. all the same fuel and raw materials, accounting for about 40% of the volume of shipping. The remaining 60% is general cargo (finished industrial products, consumer goods, food).
Railway transport accounts for approximately 15-17% of the volume of international traffic. It is generally used for inland transportation. After all, you can’t go by rail from Russia to the USA! If the average length of foreign trade sea transportation is 2500-3000 km, then the railway one is about 800-1100 km.
Air transport has become a serious competitor to maritime transport over the past 30-40 years. Given the advantages of air transport in terms of speed, it has become a leader in international passenger transportation. Moreover, with the introduction of high-speed and wide-body aircraft, the carrying capacity has increased quite sharply. Only for the period 1985-1995. international air traffic has more than doubled. At the same time, this type of transport is one of the most expensive in terms of cost. Therefore, its share in the total volume of world cargo transportation barely exceeds 6%.
Least value in transport service foreign economic relations occupied by road and river transport. In general, they account for about 5% of the volume of foreign trade freight traffic. These modes of transport are more local than the above, due to their technical nature. If railways serve intracontinental transportation, then automobile and river routes ensure the movement of goods, as a rule, between neighboring states. The average length of an international car flight does not exceed 600 km. Mention should also be made of the significant role pipeline transport. His appointment is connected with the systematic and uninterrupted delivery of oil and oil products, natural gas. The specificity of this type is due to the high cost of putting pipelines into operation and the low cost of operation. Highlighting the volumes of products distilled through pipelines, we note the significant role of this type of transport in the structure of international freight traffic - 7-8%.
3.Organization of international transportation
The process of transportation of goods, which are moved on the basis of concluded foreign trade contracts, consists of three sections of movement. The first segment of the movement is the transportation of cargo across the territory of the country of the sender: from the point of shipment of goods to the border. The second segment of the movement is the transportation of cargo across the territory of another country: from the border of the country - the sender of the cargo to the border of the country - the recipient of the cargo. This section is called transit. This option may not be in the case when neighboring countries with a common border act as foreign trade counterparties. In this case, there is no hop. The third segment of the movement is the transportation of cargo across the territory of the recipient country: from the border to the destination.
The content of the concept of "international transport operations" includes several interrelated stages.
1. Vehicle freight. As a rule, consignors and consignees do not have their own vehicles, so they must rent (charter) them. In the process of implementing international transport links, an important place is occupied by the freight services market. The largest exporters in the world market do not have a full range of vehicles. Countries such as the USA, Germany, France, China and others use freight companies for 80-90% of the volume of shipping. In the early 1990s, the value of freight transactions per year was $115-125 billion. The main providers of freight services are Japanese, Panamanian and Liberian companies.
2. Delivery of cargo to main transport vehicles.
Such services are provided by local transport companies, which mainly supply vehicles for the delivery of exported goods to ports of departure to foreign recipients.
3. Implementation of the international transportation process itself. It depends on how the conditions of transportation are reflected in the price of the delivered goods, to what extent transportation costs affect the effectiveness of the foreign trade contract.
4. Transshipment of transported goods to other modes of transport. In essence, we are talking about intermediary services in transit transportation and transshipment of goods from one mode of transport to another. In any international transportation, goods are repeatedly (sometimes more than 10 times) sequentially transferred from one carrier to another. It is much more economical to carry out such a procedure through the mediation of one company that takes on a range of services for transshipment of goods, their storage in cargo terminals in the time interval between transportation by one transport, and then by another. Here, the issue of protecting the commercial interests of cargo owners becomes very relevant. After all, goods during long-term transportation are actually alienated from cargo owners and are under the control of carriers. Therefore, the process of cargo transportation must be accompanied by insurance. Therefore, the largest insurance companies, such as the Institute of London Insurers, General Reinsurance Corporation, United Mills Agency and many others, carry out insurance of foreign trade cargo.
5. Forwarding services. The cargo owner cannot have his representatives in all points where operations with his cargo are carried out. Having a network of representative offices in many places is extremely uneconomical for a firm. Therefore, as a rule, cargo owners use the services of forwarding companies, which undertake the services of ensuring reliable escort of goods to their destination. Usually, forwarders perform the functions not only of escorting goods, but also of organizing transit, transshipment to other vehicles, organizing cargo operations, issuing transport and accompanying documents, making payments for freight, and containerizing cargo with cargo terminal operators.
The organization of international transportation is a very complicated procedure. Bearing in mind that the main mode of transport in international communications is sea, we will take a closer look at the principles of organizing the transportation process here. Many of these principles (sometimes the terminology itself) were subsequently adopted in other types of transportation. Specific points for the implementation of the transportation process are the subject of bilateral international agreements.
In international agreements, legal relations of the parties are developed and fixed. In international shipping, two main forms of organization of transportation have developed: linear (regular) and tramp (irregular). The linear organization provides transport vehicles on the main, large geographical directions of international trade. Vessels are assigned to certain routes for a long time (3-5 years). Large shipping companies of Japan, USA, France, Canada operate here. Liner carriers provide customers with a full range of transportation services, including not only delivery to the port of destination, but also loading and unloading of goods, cargo transshipment, storage, transshipment to transit lines. Liner transportation is issued by sea bill of lading. This document legally establishes the right of the carrier to dispose of the goods during transportation and is a confirmation of the shipment of the exported goods.
Trump shipping is developing on non-main sea routes and is distinguished by the following features: 1) ships are not assigned to certain routes; 2) unlike a linear organization, transportation tariffs are less stable and fluctuate depending on supply and demand in the freight market; 3) the main figure is exclusively freight intermediaries who offer ships for the delivery of goods on a short-term lease basis. The contract of carriage by sea in tramp shipping is in the form of a charter (short-term lease). There are the following forms of charter contracts: flight charter; time charter (time-charter) - for a longer time than one flight; fixed-term charter (promt-charter -- prompt-charter) -- contract for training, etc..................