Introduction

1. The concept of management schools

1.1 Historical development management schools

1.2 Development of management approaches

2. Characteristics of management schools

2.1 School of Science

2.2 Administrative or classical school of management

2.3 School of "human relations"

2.4 Mathematical School of Management

3. Taylor F.W. as the founder of modern management

3.1 Emergence of Taylorism

3.2 The essence of the concept of F.U. Taylor

3.3 Principles of the F.U. Taylor

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The concept of "management" in Lately more and more often used in Russian. “Managers' schools” are opened, “managers' clubs” are created, “managers' seminars” are held, but rarely do people realize what exactly is hidden behind this beautiful word.

The words "manager" and "management" were used in English language even in the last century. But only by the second quarter of the 20th century did they gradually begin to acquire a certain meaning, according to which a manager is a person who organizes specific work, guided by modern methods.

In the literature, management is defined as production management, a system of methods, principles, tools and forms of management developed and used in developed countries to improve the efficiency of production or other social activities.

The problems of nature and the principles of control have troubled thinkers for many centuries. Special attention they are given on the pages of a special press during the period of transformation of socio-economic relations. Objectively, the theory and practice of management developed in our country and developed capitalist countries in parallel, which was due to the socio-economic conditions of the organization and functioning of production. Therefore, of particular interest is the consideration of the evolution of the formation of managerial thought in our country and management as a specific field of knowledge about the laws of management abroad. The beginning of the development of management science is associated with the period of industrial capitalism, the appearance in 1776 of A. Smith's work "The Wealth of Nations". characteristic feature era, the importance of a specialist in efficiency and a production manager was noted. Many businessmen agreed with A. Smith that only healthy competition will provide a variety of goods and a quality of life for everyone. At the same time, at that time, the capitalists paid practically no attention to financial aspects business.

Based on the historical periodization of management development, three main directions in the development of the theory and practice of management can be distinguished: this is a product concept (late 19th - early 20th centuries), sales (30-50s) and marketing (from the late 50s - early 60s). Such a division is conditional, because at present, even in developed capitalist countries, one can find separate industries that carry out their activities using all of the above concepts.

Further development of the theory and practice of management is investigated with the allocation of approaches, schools of management. The historical processes of management are structured according to the stages of development of managerial thought, highlighting certain schools that follow each other in time and complement each other with new meaningful aspects of understanding management. At present, it is rather difficult to systematize the established schools in management, since representatives of various schools use theories and concepts of other schools.

The theme of my term paper is "School of Management".

aim This work is to consider the issue of the historical development of the theory and practice of management from the standpoint of various schools.

Subject my work is the science of management.

Questions, which I put in my term paper:

· What is management?

· Historical stages of development of schools?

· Types and functions of management schools?

· Contribution to the development of the school of management by the researcher U.F. Taylor?

1. The concept of management schools

1.1 Historical development of management schools

Great industrial revolution XVII-XIX centuries had a much more significant impact on the theory and practice of management than all previous revolutions. It was at this stage that management began to develop in the form in which we are accustomed to perceive this word. It was then that there was a need for talented managers who could develop their own strategy for managing the company and business development and lead the company to success, or, in extreme cases, save it from bankruptcy.

By the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the first works appeared in which an attempt was made to scientifically generalize the accumulated experience and form the foundations of management science. It was a response to the needs of industrial development, mass production and mass marketing, focusing on large-capacity markets and large-scale organization in the form of powerful corporations and joint-stock companies.

As an independent science, management was born at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. It was during this period that the first works devoted to the management of economic activity appeared.

In many ways, this was predetermined by the needs of capitalist society. The division of labor has led to the fact that production has become very complex, and, consequently, the mechanisms for managing it have become more complicated.

In addition, it was realized that without effective management the normal functioning of the enterprise, which involves, among other things, making a profit, is impossible. This became the main prerequisite for the formation of ideas about management.

For the first time, the idea of ​​management as a specialization, a special profession was expressed, apparently, in 1866 by an American businessman G. Town. Town spoke at a meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers with a report in which he spoke about the need to train managerial specialists.

classic direction management includes three areas:

– scientific management- the emphasis was on the scientifically based organization of production, rationality and presentation of management in the form of an industrial one (F.W. Taylor, G. Gant, F. Gilbert);

– administrative management- attention was paid to the organization as a whole and to such functions as planning, organization, command chain, coordination and control (A. Fayol, MP Follet);

- the concept of bureaucratic organizations provided a clear definition official duties and responsibility of employees, formal reporting, separation of ownership and management, which should have been built on an impersonal, rational basis (M. Weber).

In general, the period of dominance of the classical direction of management was fruitful - the science of management appeared, a new fundamental concept, efficiency increased.

1.2 Development of management approaches

To date, four major approaches are known that have made a significant contribution to the development of the theory and practice of management.

Process approach sees governance as a continuous series of interrelated managerial functions.

In a systems approach it is emphasized that managers should consider the organization as a set of interdependent elements, such as people, structure, tasks and technology, which are focused on achieving different goals in a changing external environment.
situational approach focuses on the fact that the suitability of different management methods is determined by the situation. Because there are so many factors, both within the organization and in environment There is no single “best” way to manage an organization. The most effective method in a particular situation is the method that best suits the situation.

Approaches based on the selection of management schools. In the first half of the twentieth century, four distinct schools of managerial thought developed. Chronologically, they can be listed in the following order: school scientific management, the administrative scale, the psychology and human relations scale, and the management science scale (or quantitative school). The most staunch adherents of each of these directions believed at one time that they had managed to find the key to the most effective achievement of the goals of the organization. More recent research and unsuccessful attempts to apply the theoretical discoveries of schools in practice proved that many answers to management questions were only partially correct in limited situations. And yet, each of these schools has made a significant and tangible contribution to given area. Even the most progressive modern organizations still use certain concepts and techniques that have arisen within the framework of these schools.

Scientists identify many approaches to management. Yes, it is of interest G. Kunz classification, who identified the following management approaches:

1. Empirical approach.

2. Approach from the point of view of human behavior.

3. Approach from the point of view of the social system.

4. Mathematical approach.

5. Operational approach.

Considers the principles of organizing the management of a firm somewhat differently. Joe. Shaunnessy grouping schools of government in the following way:

1. Classical approach.

2. Theory of human relations, behavioral approach.

3. Systems approach.

4. Situational theories of organization.

Scholars also identify other schools or theories. For example,

1. The theory of industrial management.

2. School of "scientific management".

3. The theory of bureaucratic organization of management.

4. The theory of "human factor in management".

5. The concept of "industrial democracy".

The analysis of the above approaches concerns, first of all, the “process approach”, “system approach” and “situational approach”, i.e. there is an artificial and unjustified division. On the one hand, management research methods are covered, on the other hand, management is considered with the allocation of schools, the concepts of “management research method” are replaced by the concept of “management approach”. Indeed, the latter are methods of management research within management schools.

The very first studies in the field of management were made classical school of management.

The first managers were mainly concerned with the issue of production efficiency (technical approach). They focused their activities on the adaptation of workers. For the purpose of production efficiency, the design of workplaces was developed, the time spent on various operations was studied, etc.

Most researchers of that time believed that management is an art. This understanding of management is due to the fact that not all employees are suitable for a managerial position in terms of their parameters. There are certain character traits and skills that are common to all successful managers. Therefore, many researchers have adopted an approach when studying personality in terms of character. Those. if you establish the character traits inherent in a manager, then you can find people who have such qualities.

The results of such studies have shown that it is impossible to determine parameters by character traits, that even such a thing as intelligence, in some cases, may not be of paramount importance in management. In the end, it was found that the concept of character traits simply did not work. In this regard, the question arose: is there a science of management?

The first major step towards considering management as a science was made by F. Taylor (1856-1915), who led the scientific management movement. He became interested not in the effectiveness of a person, but in the efficiency of the organization, which marked the beginning of the development of the school of scientific management, as one of the main schools of management. Thanks to the development of the concept of scientific management, management was recognized as an independent field of scientific research. In his works "Factory Management" (1903) and "Principles scientific management"(1911) F. Taylor developed a number of methods scientific organization labor based on the study of the movements of the worker with the help of timing, standardization of techniques and tools.

Fundamental principles schools of scientific management are as follows: if I can scientific basis select people, train them on a scientific basis, give them some incentives and combine work and person, then I can get a total productivity that exceeds the contribution made by the individual labor force. The main merit of F. Taylor is that he, as the founder schools of scientific management developed the methodological foundations of labor rationing, introduced into practice scientific approaches selection, placement and stimulation of workers. F. Taylor's greatest contribution to school of scientific management is that he started a revolution in management.

The formation of the school of scientific management, as a science of management, is also associated with the names of F. and L. Gilbert. They conducted research in the field of labor movements, improved timing techniques, and also developed scientific principles workplace organization.

By 1916, a whole line of research was formed: the first scientific school, which received several names - the school of scientific management, the classical school of management, the traditional school of management.

A variation of the classical school of management is administrative school of management. She studied the role and functions of a manager. It was believed that as soon as the essence of the work of the manager was determined, it was easy to identify the most effective methods guides.
One of the pioneers in the development of such an idea was A. Fayol (1841-1925). He divided the entire management process into five main functions that we still use in managing an organization: planning, organization, recruitment and placement, leadership, motivation and control.

Based on the teachings of A. Fayol in the 20s. concept was formulated organizational structure firm, the elements of which represent a system of relationships, a series of continuous interrelated actions - management functions.

The principles of management developed by A. Fayol should be recognized as an independent result of the science of management, administration (hence the name administrative school of management). It is no coincidence that Americans call the Frenchman A. Fayol the father of management.

The essence of the principles of management developed by him is as follows:

• division of labor;
• authority and responsibility of power;
• discipline;
• unity of leadership;
• unity of management;
• subordination of private interest to the general one;
• remuneration for work;
• balance between centralization and decentralization;
• coordination of managers of the same level;
• order;
• justice;
• kindness and decency;
• staff stability;
• initiative.

Among other representatives of the administrative school of management, one can single out M. Bloomfield, who developed the concept personnel management, or workforce management(1917), and M. Weber, who proposed the concept of rational bureaucracy (1921). He characterized the ideal types of domination and put forward the position according to which bureaucracy - the order established by the rules - is the most effective form of human organization.

The main feature of the classical school of management (the scientific school of management and the administrative school of management) is that there is only one way to achieve production efficiency. Therefore, the goal of classical managers was to discover this perfect and only acceptable method of management.

The classical school of management is one of the first stones in the foundation of the world management science. However, this is not the only trend in the development of managerial thought.

A definite breakthrough in the field of management, marked by the appearance schools of human relations (behavioral management school), was made at the turn of the 30s. It is based on the achievements of psychology and sociology (the sciences of human behavior). Therefore, within the framework of this doctrine, in the management process, it was proposed to focus on the employee, and not on his task.

At the beginning of the XX century. scientists who study human behavior labor process, were no less interested in increasing labor productivity than any of the classical managers. They realized that by focusing on the worker, they could better stimulate his work. It was assumed that people are living machines and that management should be based on concern for the individual worker.

R. Owen was a management reformer in the sense that he was the first to pay attention to people. His idea is that the company spends a lot of time caring for machines and machines (lubrication, repairs, etc.) and cares little about people. Therefore, it is quite reasonable to spend the same time on caring for people (a living machine). This is attention and care for them, providing favorable conditions for recreation, etc. Then, most likely, "repair" of people will not be required.

Ancestor schools of human relations considered to be E. Mayo. He found that a group of workers is social system, which has its own control systems. By influencing such a system in a certain way, it is possible to improve, as E. Mayo believed then, the results of labor.

As a result, the human relations school movement became a counterbalance to the entire scientific movement. This is due to the fact that the emphasis in the human relations school movement was on caring for people, while in the scientific management school movement it was on concern for production. The idea is that simply showing positive attention to people has a very large impact on productivity. Those. we are talking about increasing the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.

Among other scientists of this direction, one can single out M.P. Follet, who analyzed leadership styles and developed leadership theory.

Great contribution to development schools of human relations was made in the 40-60s, when behavioral scientists (from the English behavior - behavior) developed several theories of motivation.

One of them is A. Maslow's hierarchical theory of needs. He proposed the following classification of human needs:

1. physiological;
2. in the safety of its existence;
3. social (belonging to a team, communication, attention to oneself, caring for others, etc.);
4. prestigious (authority, official status, self-esteem, self-respect);
5. in self-expression, full use of their capabilities, achievement of goals and personal growth.

No less popular in the school of human relations is the teaching of D. McGregor (1960). His theory (X and Y) is based on the following characteristics of workers:

• theory X - the average individual is dumb, tends to evade work, so he must be constantly forced, urged, controlled and directed. A person of this category prefers to be led, seeks to avoid responsibility, worries only about his own safety;
• theory Y-people are not naturally passive. They became so as a result of working in an organization. For this category of workers, the costs of physical and mental labor are as natural and necessary as games on vacation. Such a person not only accepts responsibility, but also strives for it. He does not need control from the outside, as he is able to control himself.

A modified version of D. McGregor's teaching is presented by R. Blake in the form of a GRID management grid.

IV period of the school of management - the information period (1960 to the present).

More recent management theories have been developed mainly by representatives of the quantitative school, often called the management school. The emergence of the management school of management is a consequence of the use of mathematics and computers in management. Its representatives consider management as a logical process that can be expressed mathematically. In the 60s. a broad development of management concepts begins, based on the use of a mathematical apparatus, with the help of which the integration of mathematical analysis and subjective decisions of managers is achieved.

The formalization of a number of managerial functions, the combination of labor, man and computer required a revision of the structural elements of the organization (accounting services, marketing, etc.). There are new elements of intra-company planning, such as simulation modeling solutions, methods of analysis under uncertainty, software for evaluating multi-purpose management decisions.

IN modern conditions mathematical methods are used in almost all areas of management science.

The study of management as a process has led to widespread system methods analysis. The so-called systems approach in management was associated with the use of general theory systems for solving managerial problems It suggests that managers should consider the organization as a set of interrelated elements, such as people, structure, tasks, technology, resources.

The main idea of ​​the systems management theory is that no action is taken in isolation from others. Each decision has implications for the entire system. A systematic approach to management avoids situations when a solution in one area turns into a problem for another.

On the basis of a systematic approach, control tasks were developed in several directions. This is how the theory of contingencies arose. Its essence lies in the fact that each situation in which the manager finds himself can be similar to other situations. However, it will have unique properties. The manager's task in this situation is to analyze all the factors separately and identify the strongest dependencies (correlations).

In the 70s. got an idea open system management. The organization as an open system tends to adapt to a very diverse internal environment. Such a system is not self-sustaining, it depends on energy, information and materials coming from outside. It has the ability to adapt to changes in the external environment.

Thus, following systems theory, we can assume that any formal organization should have a functionalization system (i.e. various forms of structural division):

• a system of effective and efficient incentives to encourage people to contribute to group action;
• power system;
• logical decision making system.

From the point of view of the economics of the organization, the most significant results in scientific and methodological terms were obtained within the framework of the situational approach. The essence of the situational approach is that the forms, methods, systems, styles of management should vary significantly depending on the situation, i.e. the situation must take center stage. This is a specific set of circumstances that strongly affect the organization at this particular time. In other words, the essence of the recommendations on the theory of a systematic approach is the requirement to solve the current, specific organizational and managerial problem, depending on the goals of the organization and the prevailing specific conditions in which this goal must be achieved. Those. the suitability of different management methods is determined by the situation.

The situational approach has made a great contribution to the development of control theory. It contains specific recommendations regarding the application of scientific provisions to management practice, depending on the current situation and conditions of external and internal environment organizations. Using a situational approach, managers can understand what methods and means will best contribute to the achievement of the organization's goals in a particular situation.

For the first time, the idea of ​​management as a special specialization, a special profession, was apparently expressed in 1866 by the American businessman G. Town. Town spoke at a meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers with a report in which he spoke about the need to train managerial specialists.

Time period							Nowadays
Schools of Management
School of Scientific Management
Administrative (classical) school
School of Human Relations
School of Behavioral Sciences
School of Management Science (Quantitative School)
Management approaches
Process approach to management
System approach to management
Situational approach to management

School of Scientific Management (the school of scientific management) proceeded from the assumption that the optimal organization of production can be created on the basis of accurate knowledge of how people act. Supporters of this direction believed that with the help of logic, observations, analysis and calculations, it is possible to organize production in such a way that it will be as efficient as possible. In addition, associated with the school of scientific management is the notion that management is a special function that is separate from the actual performance of work.

Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) is considered to be the founder of the school of scientific management, an American engineer who is known for developing the first holistic concept of management, which is called "Taylorism" in his honor. Taylor attended the meeting during which Town read his report. Towne's idea inspired Taylor to create his own concept of management. He formulated his ideas in the books Workshop Management (1903) and Principles and Methods of Scientific Management (1911).

Taylor was educated as a mechanical engineer and worked for a steel company that embodied the basic ideas of Taylorism. It should be noted that in Taylor's time, monopoly capitalism experienced its heyday. Enterprises grew very quickly, and this required the unification and standardization of production, more efficient use of material resources, time and labor.

Therefore, Taylor saw the main goal of management in increasing labor productivity. To achieve this goal, from Taylor's point of view, it was possible only through the development of numerous rules by which operations are carried out and which should replace the judgment of the worker. In fact, this means that Taylor assigned the main role in the management of production to instructions in accordance with which workers must act. Instructions were developed in the process of studying the operations that workers should perform. This was the shortcoming of Taylor's concept: it did not sufficiently take into account the personality of the worker.

According to Taylor, there are four main principles of the scientific organization of work:

1) the administration of the enterprise should strive to introduce scientific and technological achievements into the production process, replacing traditional and purely practical methods;

2) the administration should take on the role of selecting workers and training them in their specialty (before Taylor, this was not done and the worker independently chose a profession and trained himself);

3) the administration must harmonize the scientific principles of production with the principles in force in the field of production from the very beginning;

4) responsibility for the results of labor is distributed evenly between the workers and the administration.

Among Taylor's followers are Henry Gant, as well as the spouses Frank and Lillian Gilbert. Just like Taylor, they sought to improve the work process by developing clear instructions that were based on logical analysis. Gant, for example, developed methods for scheduling the activities of an enterprise, and also formulated the basics of operational management. By the way, it was the supporters of scientific management who were the first to use cameras and movie cameras in their research.

Not everyone knows that Henry Ford, who is best known as the founder of the American automobile industry, is also a major figure in the history of scientific management. The success he achieved in business largely depended on his theory, which was called "Fordism". In his opinion, the task of industry cannot be seen only in meeting the needs of the market (although no industry can exist without this): it is necessary to organize the production process in such a way that, firstly, it is possible to reduce product prices, and secondly, to increase wages. workers' labor.

Ford believed that the correct organization of production involves

1) replacement of manual labor by machine,

2) care for employees, which consists in creating favorable working conditions (cleanliness in workshops, comfort), as well as

3) product quality improvement

4) development of the service maintenance network.

In his practice, Ford sought to divide the production process into the smallest operations, as a result of which the movement of products from one worker to another depended only on the speed with which the operation was performed. This is what allowed him to reduce the cost of production.

The disadvantage of scientific management is that it puts at the forefront the technical means with which supposedly it is possible to solve any problems.

Administrative School of Management . Henri Fayol (1841-1925) is another prominent representative of management in the first quarter of the 20th century, who developed the foundations of the administrative approach to management. He, like his like-minded people (L. Urwick, J. Mooney), had experience as a leader top management in a large enterprise. It was this experience that allowed Fayol to formulate the foundations of the science of management based on the general characteristics of the organization and the laws that it obeys. The administrative school is also called the classical school.

From Fayol's point of view, the efficiency of production can be increased not only by improving the devices of work and the operations that the worker must perform, but also by properly organizing the work of the whole enterprise. Consequently, the role of the administration from the point of view of Fayol's concept increased noticeably. Under effective administrative management, Fayol understood such management of an enterprise that allows you to extract the maximum possible from the resources at your disposal.

The administrative function was considered by Fayol as one of the management functions (along with the production, commercial, financial, credit and accounting functions). In addition, Fayol showed that the administrative function is implemented at all levels of the organization.

Fayol identified 14 principles of management:

1) the division of labor, thanks to which it is possible to increase its productivity;

2) balance between authority and responsibility; 3) discipline;

4) unity of command, in which the employee is subordinate to only one leader;

5) the unity of the direction of movement of all departments of the organization;

6) the primacy of common interests over personal ones;

7) worthy remuneration as a condition for the loyalty of employees;

8) balance between centralization and decentralization;

9) hierarchy of the organization;

10) order in everything;

11) justice, which is a combination of kindness and justice;

12) staff stability and inadmissibility of staff turnover;

13) initiative in the construction and implementation of the plan;

14) corporate spirit - feeling like a member of a team.

Representatives of this school identified three main functions of business: finance, production and marketing. They believed that this separation could form the basis for the optimal division of the organization into divisions.

The concept of scientific bureaucracy. Another scientific school of the classical direction of management was developed by the German scientist Max Weber (1864-1920), which involved the analysis of the company as a bureaucratic organization. Management, according to Weber, should be built on an impersonal, purely rational basis. He defined this form as bureaucracy. Such a concept implied a clear definition of job duties and responsibilities of employees, formal reporting, separation of ownership and management.

Bureaucratic rules and procedures are a standard way of interaction: the same requirements are imposed on each of the employees, they are all guided by the same rules. It was the bureaucracy that allowed many organizations to achieve high performance, and did not carry a negative meaning in Weber's approach.

In his main work"Theory of socio-economic organization" Weber formulated the principles of building an "ideal" organization. Bureaucratic models of building an organization became widespread in the 1930s and 1940s. XX century. In the future, the passion for this approach (“the organization works like a machine”) led to an increase in the cumbersomeness of managerial structures and began to impede the flexibility and efficiency of entrepreneurial activity.

In general, the period of dominance of the classical direction of management was fruitful - the science of management appeared, a new fundamental concept, efficiency increased.

School of Human Relations . The classical school of management did not adequately take into account the human factor as a fundamental element of the effectiveness of the organization. Therefore, in the 30-50s. 20th century the neoclassical school became widespread, and in its composition - the school of human relations, which transferred the center of gravity in management from the performance of production tasks to relations between people.

The emergence of this school is directly related to the name of the German psychologist Hugo Munspgerberger (1863-1916), who moved to the United States. He actually created the world's first school of industrial psychologists, was one of the founders of psychotechnics (selection, testing, compatibility, etc.). In his work "Psychology and Industrial Efficiency", which received wide popularity, he formulated the principle of selecting people for leadership positions.

A special merit in the creation of the theory and practice of human relations belongs to the psychologist Elton Mayo (1880-1949), who conducted the "Hattorn experiments" in the town of Hatthorn near Chicago at the enterprises of the Western Electric company. They continued from 1927 to 1933. and have no analogues in scale and duration.

Experiments have shown that it is possible to influence people's attitudes towards work through the creation of informal groups. The art of communicating with people was to be the main criterion for the selection of administrators, starting with the master. The works of Mayo and his associates laid the foundation for numerous studies of relationships in organizations, identifying motivations for work, and the role of small groups. This determined the development management theory and practices for a quarter of a century ahead.

Supporters of the psychological approach believed that the main focus in management should be shifted to the person and human relationships. They proceeded from the indisputable fact that human activity is controlled not by economic forces, but by various needs, and money is by no means always able to satisfy these needs.

Of course, this approach is extreme, since the management process combines a variety of aspects. However, this extreme was legitimate: it was a response to the excessive interest in technology inherent in scientific management.

Representatives of the school of human relations explored management processes using methods developed in sociology and psychology. In particular, they were the first to use tests and special forms of job interviews.

As a result of the research, E. Mayo came to the conclusion that such factors as logical labor operations and high wage, highly valued by supporters of scientific management, do not always affect the increase in labor productivity. He found that labor productivity is no less dependent on relationships with other workers. For this reason, representatives of the school of human relations argued that management can only be effective if leaders are sufficiently aware of the personal characteristics of their subordinates, their strengths and weaknesses. Only in this case, the leader can fully and effectively use their capabilities.

The essence of the concept, which develops in the mainstream of human relations, is the development of work tasks in accordance with the principle of motivation, when employees are given the opportunity to reach their full potential and thereby satisfy their highest needs.

The most famous representatives include Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). Psychoanalyst and theoretical scientist, he came to the conclusion that there is a hierarchy of needs, the basis of which is formed by physiological needs, on which the needs for security, belonging, self-esteem and, finally, self-actualization are based. Based on this theory, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y. Classical management is based on the first of them, and the second is more realistic and complete.

The assumptions of Theory Y boil down to the fact that there is no innate dislike for work, external control and sanctions are not the only and not the most effective method control (motivation), most workers are able to show ingenuity and that, finally, the potential of the intellect of the "average" individual is far from being fully used. Their research contributed to the emergence in the 60s of a special managerial function "personnel management". Maslow's theory has been used as the basis for many models of labor motivation, including behavioral approaches (behaviorism).

The merits of the supporters of the school of human relations are very great. Before them, psychology had practically no data on how the human psyche is connected with his work activity. It was within the framework of this school that studies were carried out that significantly enriched our understanding of mental activity.

behavioral school . The traditions of the school of human relations were continued within the framework of the school of behavioral sciences (R. Likert, D. McGregor, K. Argyris, F. Herzberg), whose ideas later formed the basis of such a section of management as personnel management. This concept was based on the ideas of behaviorism - a psychological trend that considered human behavior as a reaction to stimuli from the outside world. Proponents of this approach believed that production efficiency can only be achieved by influencing each individual person with the help of various incentives.

The views of the representatives of this school were based on the idea that an indispensable condition for the effectiveness of the work of an individual worker is his awareness of his own capabilities. A number of methods have been developed to help achieve this goal. For example, in order to increase the efficiency of work, it was proposed to change its content or involve an employee in the management of the enterprise. Scientists believed that with the help of such methods it is possible to achieve the disclosure of the capabilities of the employee.

However, the ideas of the school of behavioral sciences proved to be limited. This does not mean that the developed methods are completely unsuitable. The fact is that they act only in some cases: for example, involving an employee in the management of an enterprise does not always affect the quality of his work, since everything depends primarily on the psychological characteristics of a person.

and their interaction with various forms of human participation in production.

School of Management Science. This school was formed in the 1950s. 20th century and exists, improving, to the present. It has led to a deeper understanding of complex managerial problems through the development and application of models. Quantitative methods are widely used to help managers make decisions in difficult situations.

The most famous representatives of this school are R. Ackoff, S. Beer, A. Goldberger, R. Luce, L. Klein and others.

In the school of management science, two main directions are distinguished: production is considered as a "social system", firstly, and systemic and situational analysis with the use of mathematical methods and computers ("RS"), secondly.

The school has developed a large number of principles, rules, approaches, etc. Scientists believe that the introduction of new management methods reflects the desire of companies to achieve high results in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, the strengthening of social principles, the growth of post-industrial elements of the life of firms - information, waste-free, space, biological technologies, the expansion and complexity of the legal framework, new forms of competition, types of after-sales service, etc.

To name just a few new effective approaches: decision tree, brainstorming, management by objectives, diversification (conglomerates), theory Z, budgeting (zero base), quality circles, portfolio management, intrapreneurship.

In addition to the process approach (developed in the 50s, but originated in the classical school of management), systemic (late 60s - 70s) and situational (80s - 90s) approaches began to be widely used.

The system approach considers processes and phenomena in the form of aggregate integral elements, structures that move them. Systems have a hierarchical structure, horizontal and vertical connections, certain functions, centripetal and centrifugal tendencies, feedbacks (in addition to direct ones), exogenous and endogenous factors of development are inherent in systems.

Systems are divided into closed, functioning in isolation (independently) from the external environment, and open - associated with the metasystem, external influence. Simple and complex systems are distinguished by a tree of goals.

System approach in the 60-70s. becomes a universal ideology of management, and system analysis - a generally recognized toolkit. The application of systems theory to management made it easier for managers to see the organization (firm) in the unity of its constituent parts and their multi-temporal dynamics. The systematic methodology helped to integrate the contributions of all schools, in different time dominated in the theory and practice of management, not opposing, but supplementing and supplementing the well-known management innovations.

The situational or case approach (case situation) is both a way of thinking and a set of specific actions. Developed at the Harvard Business School (USA), this approach is aimed at developing situational thinking and the direct use of the theoretical knowledge gained, leading to the analysis of real situations and the adoption of typological decisions. The situational approach, in contrast to the process and even system approach, is more often used in non-standard cases, in situations of uncertainty, unexpected non-standard environmental response. An approach of this kind brings up special qualities in managers: flexibility, foresight, the ability to make programmed decisions in non-standard situations, to be original in achieving goals. This is anti-crisis type management, mass disturbances of the typical course of the process, cataclysms, etc.

Consideration of the situation as an important phenomenon was anticipated by Mary P. Follet in the 1920s. However, only much later did it enter the "life of management".

Accounting for situations is very important when comparing styles. managerial culture in various countries.

During the described period, there were noticeable differences in national (country) approaches. This is most clearly seen when comparing the American, Japanese and European traditions.

At the end of the century, at the turn of the 90s, the following trends were observed in the development of management:

1. In connection with the strengthening of the influence of scientific and technological progress on the achievement of the goals of the organization, the role of product quality in competition and the increasing complexity of the place and role of supply (suppliers) in the economy, there has been, as it were, a return (at a new historical level) to the problems of production, awareness of the importance material and technical base of modern production.

2. Increasing attention to various forms of democratization of managerial functions, participation of ordinary workers in management, in profits 3. Increasing influence of international external conditions, internationalization of management. There is a problem of "docking" local (national) and international types of management, the limits of the universality of management methods, taking into account the irremovable national styles of management.

Management development

1.3 Schools of Management

1.3.1 School of Scientific Management

The School of Scientific Management (1885-1920) is associated with the work of F. Taylor, Frank and Lily Gilbreth, and Henry Gantt. The founders of the school believed that, using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, many manual labor operations could be improved. The first phase of the methodology was the analysis of the content of the work and the definition of its main components.

Characteristic of the school of scientific management was the systematic use of incentives to interest workers in increasing productivity and output. The possibility of breaks in production, including for rest, was envisaged. The amount of time allotted to certain tasks was realistic, which gave management the ability to set production quotas that were achievable and pay extra for those who exceeded those quotas. At the same time, people who produced more were rewarded more. The importance of selecting people who were fit for the job was recognized; emphasized the importance of education.

The School of Scientific Management advocated separating the managerial functions of thinking and planning from actually doing the work. Management work is a specialty, and the organization as a whole will benefit if each group of employees focuses on what they do best.

1.3.2 Administrative (classical) school

Features of the administrative school. Representatives of the classical (1920-1950) school, namely A. Fayol, L. Urvik, J. Mooney, had direct experience as top managers in big business. Their main concern was efficiency in relation to the work of the entire organization. The "classics" (whose work was largely based on personal observation rather than scientific methodology) tried to look at organizations from a broader perspective, trying to define General characteristics and patterns of organizations. The goal of the school was to create universal principles of management, following which will undoubtedly lead the organization to success. These principles were related to two aspects. One of them was the development of a rational organization management system. Defining the main functions of a business as finance, production and marketing, the "classics" were sure that they could determine The best way division of the organization into divisions or groups. Fayol considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions.

Division of labor. The purpose of division is to produce work that is larger in volume and better in quality for the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and efforts must be directed;

Authority and responsibility. Authority gives the right to give orders, responsibility is its opposite;

Discipline. Assumes obedience and respect for the agreements reached between the organization and its employees. Discipline provides for the fair application of sanctions;

Unity of command. An employee should receive orders from only one immediate supervisor;

unity of direction. Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader;

Subordination of personal interests to the general. The interests of one employee should not prevail over the interests of the company;

Staff remuneration. In order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must receive a fair salary;

Centralization. It is necessary to ensure the most correct balance between centralization and decentralization, depending on specific conditions;

Scalar chain - that is, a series of persons in leadership positions, starting from the person occupying the highest position - down to the head of the grassroots. One should not abandon the hierarchical system unnecessarily, but maintaining a hierarchy is harmful when it is detrimental to business;

Order. A place for everything, and everything in its place;

Justice is a combination of kindness and justice;

Workplace stability for staff. High staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization;

Initiative. Means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation;

corporate spirit. Union is strength, and it is the result of staff harmony.

1.3.3 School of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences

Features of the school of human relations. The human relations movement was born in response to the failure on the part of representatives of scientific management and the classical school to fully understand the human factor as a basic element effective organization. The greatest contribution to the development of the school of human relations (1930-1950) was made by two scientists - Mary Parker Follet and Elton Mayo. E. Mayo's experiments opened a new direction in control theory. He found that well-designed work procedures and good wages did not always lead to higher productivity. The forces that arose in the course of interaction between people often exceeded the efforts of leaders.

More recent research by Abraham Maslow and other psychologists has helped to understand the causes of this phenomenon. The motives of people's actions, according to Maslow, are mainly not economic forces, but various needs that can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money. Based on these findings, the researchers believed that if management takes more care of their employees, then satisfaction levels should increase, and this will lead to increased productivity. They recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective actions by superiors, consultation with employees, and providing them with greater opportunities for mutual communication at work.

Development of behavioral relationships. Among the most prominent figures of the later period of the behavioral direction (from 1950 to the present) are such scientists as K. Argyris, R. Likert, D. McGregor, F. Herzberg. These and other researchers have studied various aspects social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, leadership, organizational structure, communication in organizations, changes in the content of work and the quality of working life.

The new approach sought to assist the worker to a greater extent in understanding his own capabilities through the application of the concepts of the behavioral sciences to the construction and management of organizations. The main goal of the school was to improve the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources. The main postulate was that correct application Behavioral science will always improve the efficiency of both the employee and the organization. However, in some situations this approach proved untenable.

1.3.4 School of Management Science

The formation of the school of management science (from 1950 to the present) is associated with the emergence of cybernetics and operations research. At its core, operations research is the application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of an organization.

After the problem is formulated, the operations research team develops a model of the situation. A model is a form of representation of reality that simplifies this reality and makes it easier to understand its complexities. After the model is created, the variables are assigned quantitative values. This allows you to objectively compare and describe each variable and the relationships between them.

A key characteristic of management science is the replacement of verbal reasoning with models, symbols, and quantitative values.

Later, the school formed a theory of decision making. Currently, research in the field of managerial decisions is aimed at developing:

Methods of mathematical modeling of the processes of development and decision-making in organizations;

Algorithms for developing optimal solutions using the theory of statistical decisions, game theory, etc.;

quantitative applied and abstract models of economic phenomena.

1.3.5 Process approach to management

The process approach was first proposed by adherents of the school administration who tried to define the functions of management. However, they considered these functions as independent of each other. In contrast, the process approach considers management functions as interrelated.

Management is seen as a process, since the work to achieve goals with the help of others is a series of continuous interrelated actions. These activities, each of which is also a process, are called managerial functions. The sum of all functions is the control process.

A. Fayol identified five management functions. “To manage means to predict and plan, organize, dispose, coordinate and control

In general, the management process can be represented as consisting of the functions of planning, organization, motivation and control. These functions are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision making. Management (leadership) is considered as an independent activity. It suggests the possibility of influencing individual workers and groups in such a way that they work towards achieving the goals that are necessary for the success of the organization.

1.3.6 Systems approach to management

Systems theory was first applied in the exact sciences and in technology. Application of systems theory in management in the late 50s. was the most important contribution of the school of management science. A systems approach is not a set of principles for managers, but a way of thinking in relation to organization and management.

A system is a kind of integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. All organizations are systems. There are two main types of systems: closed and open.

A closed system has rigid fixed boundaries, its actions are independent of the environment surrounding the system. An open system is characterized by interaction with the external environment.

Large components of complex systems are often systems themselves. These parts are called subsystems. In an organization, subsystems are various departments, levels of management, social and technical components of the organization.

Understanding that organizations are complex, open systems made up of several interconnected subsystems helps explain why each school of management has only proved to be practical to a limited extent. They tended to focus on one subsystem of organization: the behavioral school dealt with the social subsystem, the scientific management schools with the technical ones. None of the schools seriously thought about the impact of the environment on the organization.

Model of the organization as an open system. The organization receives from the external environment information, capital, human resources, materials. These components are called inputs.

In the course of its activities, the organization processes these inputs, transforming them into products or services. These products and services are the organization's outputs that it releases into the environment.

If the management system is efficient, then the transformation process generates an additional cost of inputs. As a result, many additional outputs appear, such as profit, increase in market share, increase in sales, growth of the organization.

1.3.7 Situational approach to management

The situational approach has made a great contribution to management theory, using the possibilities of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions. The central point of the situational approach is the situation, that is, a specific set of circumstances that affect the organization at a given time.

Using this approach, managers can better understand which techniques will be most helpful in achieving the goals of the organization in a particular situation. Like the systems approach, the situational approach is not just a set of prescribed guidelines, it is a way of thinking about organizational problems and solutions. It also retains the concept of the management process. So, the situational approach tries to link specific techniques and concepts to certain specific situations in order to achieve the goals of the organization most effectively.

The situational approach exploits situational differences between and within organizations. The manager needs to determine what are the significant situation variables and how they affect the performance of the organization.

History of the development of the theory and practice of management

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The history of the development of the school of scientific management in management

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Quantitative control theories

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Methodological approaches of the school of management science and their role in modern management

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The main principles of the school of scientific management and their use in modern conditions

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Management system: methods for improving efficiency and the trend of its development

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Comparison of American and Japanese Schools of Quality Management

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Comparative characteristics of scientific and administrative schools of management

Taylor and his contribution to the development of management

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Managerial revolutions in management

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Introduction

Management (from English management - management, leadership, administration, direction, the ability to dispose, own, manage) - the development and creation (organization), the most efficient use (management) and control of socio-economic systems.

Management is an academic discipline, social science, the subject of which is the study of social organization.

Management is often used as a synonym for management, which is a misnomer. According to the old tradition, it is considered to be the main functions of management:

• planning
• organization
• motivation
• · control
• regulation

But still, the real main functions of management (top management, middle management, lower management), and not management, are:

• development
• · Creation
• management (maximum efficient use)
• · control

The subject of management is a person or group of people who create managerial influences within the organization and in order to achieve its goals and objectives. management management school

The object of management is everything on which the managerial influences of the subject of management are oriented. The objects of management can be the organization's personnel, its competitors, the organization's finances, production, sales, resource suppliers, information, etc.

The subjects and objects of management are collectively the management system of the organization.

Major Schools of Management

School of Scientific Management(rationalist school) (1885-1920) is associated with the works of Frederick Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Henry Gant, G. Emerson, G. Ford.

School methodology:

• 1. The founders of the school believed that using observation, measurements, logic and analysis, many manual labor operations could be improved;
• 2. The first phase of the methodology was the analysis of the content of the work and the definition of its main components. Thus, the Gilbreths studied operations using a movie camera in combination with micro timing, fixing intervals of up to 1/200 of a second, to determine the time required for a particular movement in performing work.

Attitude to the human factor:

• 1. Systematic incentives for employees with a view to their interest in the growth of labor productivity and production volumes;
• 2. The introduction of breaks in production, including for rest;
• 3. Establishing workable production standards, and additional payments to those who exceed them;
• 4. The importance of selecting people physically and intellectually appropriate for the work performed, training workers was recognized.

Separation of management functions from production:

• 1. Advocated separating the managerial functions of analysis and planning from the actual execution of work;
• 2. Defined the activities of management as a specific specialty that is necessary for the success of the organization;
• 3. Management began to be recognized as a separate area professional activity, although representatives of the school dealt with the problems of improving labor efficiency at a level below the managerial one.

Administrative (classic)(1920-1950) is associated with the works of Henri Fayol (head of a French coal mining company), Lindal Urwick (management consultant in England), James Mooney (vice president of General Motors), A. Reilly, L. Gyulik, W. Newman, L. Allen, M. Weber.

The goal of the school is to create universal principles of management, following which will lead the organization to success.

• 1. Associated with the development of a rational organization management system. Fayol considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions. By defining the core functions of a business as finance, manufacturing and marketing, we were confident that we could determine the best way to divide an organization into groups and subgroups.
• 2. Associated with the construction of the structure of the organization and management of employees. Rational bureaucracy by Max Weber.

School features:

• 1. Representatives of the school had direct experience of senior managers in big business;
• 2. Research was aimed at improving the efficiency of the entire organization;
• 3. Representatives of the school tried to evaluate the activities of the organization from the point of view of a broad perspective, to determine the general characteristics and patterns of organizations.

Henri Fayol formulated 14 principles of management.

School of Human Relations(1930-1950) and behavioral sciences (1950-present). Representatives of the school of human relations: Mary Parker Follet, Elton Mayo, Abraham Maslow. Representatives of the later (behavioral) direction of the school: K. Adzhiris, R. Likert, D. McGregor, F. Herzber, C. Bernard, and others.

Features of the school of human relations:

• 1. Awareness of the human factor as the main element of an effective organization (unlike previous schools);
• 2. The experiments of E. Mayo (Hawthorne) opened a new direction in control theory. Well-designed work procedures and good remuneration do not always lead to an increase in labor productivity, in contrast to the forces that arise in the course of interaction between people;
• 3. Later studies (A. Maslow and other psychologists) made it possible to understand the causes of this phenomenon. The motives of people's actions are not economic forces, but various needs that can only be partially satisfied with the help of money (communication, respect, self-expression).

Features of the development of views on management in the behavioral sciences:

• 1. Representatives of this direction studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, nature of power, authority, leadership, organizational structure, communications, changes in the content of work and the quality of working life (KTZ);
• 2. Helping the employee to realize their own capabilities based on the application of the concepts of behavioral sciences to the construction and management of organizations;
• 3. The main goal of the school is to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of using its human resources;
• 4. The main thing - the correct application of the science of behavior will always increase the efficiency of both the employee and the organization.

School of Management Science (Quantitative Methods) (1950 - present). Representatives: R. Ackoff, L. Von Bertalanffy, S. Beer, F. Goldberger, D. Forsrester, R. Luce, L. Klein.

School features:

• 1. The formation of the school is associated with the emergence of cybernetics and operations research. Initially, operations research was limited to the development of methods quantitative analysis task as a whole without singling out its parts. At its core, operations research is the application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of an organization;
• 2. After the problem is stated, the research team develops a model of the situation. A model is a form of representation of reality that simplifies it, makes it easier to understand its complexities (map, globe). After creating the model, the variables are given quantitative characteristics (values), which allows you to objectively compare and describe each variable and the relationship between them;
• 3. A key characteristic of the science of management is the replacement of verbal reasoning with models, symbols and quantitative values.

The computer allowed operations researchers to construct models of increasing complexity. These are the models found in management: resource allocation, inventory management, queuing, choice of development strategy, etc.