Information collection methods and analysis tools. Determining data collection methods Information collection methods

Illegal methods of collecting intelligence information and secret information protected by the owner, and often by law, got their name for the use of methods and techniques that are outside the legal field during the accumulation of the necessary array of information.

Numerous illegal methods of collecting information can be classified as follows:
1. Theft of a competitor's property.
2. Theft of documents containing information that the interested party needs.
3. Copying documents containing information that the interested party needs.
4. Sending penetrating agents to a competitor's site.
5. The introduction of agents in the structures of a competitor.
6. Listening to competitor's conversations.
7. Breaking into a competitor's local computer system.

Especially often, abduction techniques are used in the preparation, holding and curtailment of exhibitions, fairs, demonstrations and other promotional activities. In addition, abductions are intended to obtain an object for research, they can also be used to disrupt promotional activities. History knows many such cases (theft of silkworms, porcelain, steel-smelting technologies; disruption of demonstrations of the Maxim machine gun, etc.). The stolen products are then examined in special secret laboratories, also called "vivisection laboratories".

The theft of documents, if it did not end in the failure of the agent, is a signal to the firm, and it will take protective measures. More successful, in this respect, is copying competitor's documents. Firstly, skillfully copied documents leave no traces, and remain unknown to their owner. This is perhaps the main factor in favor of this technique. Secondly, modern computer, photo and video equipment allows us to do this work quickly, efficiently and reliably.

The task of secret collection of information, - noted A. Dulles, - consists mainly of getting closer to a certain object bypassing all obstacles. The next task is the collection and selection of information, which are also carried out by secret methods. The next task, and perhaps no less responsible, is the transfer of information to the user. Finally, the last one, information processing, is solved more simply by involving specialists in special departments and laboratories.

With illegal methods of collecting information, the first three tasks are solved by agents. The main problem of selecting agents is as follows: they must be able to solve all three tasks related to access to the object, collection and selection of information and its transmission. Different types of agents meet these requirements not equally.

These obstacles can be overcome in two ways:
1) combination of agents for carrying out one operation or solving tasks of the same type;
2) the introduction of an agent on the object of intelligence.

In case of episodic penetration of a competitor’s object, it is possible to combine several agents, specialists in various areas: penetration, selection of information, its delivery. In case of episodic penetration, the scout is at the facility illegally, and the first step to such a state is to overcome the guards at the entrance and exit.

In this case, various tricks are used: turning off the alarm, forging passes, distracting guards, entering from the back door, etc. An experienced scout is often helped by intuition and chance.

When solving problems of long-term penetration, it is advisable to recruit a specialist at the facility and connect a liaison officer to him from the outside.

General characteristics of data collection methods.

Data collection methods for conducting marketing research can be classified into two groups: quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative research is usually identified with the conduct of various surveys based on the use of structured closed questions, which are answered by big number respondents. Characteristic features of such studies are: a well-defined format of the collected data and sources of their receipt, the processing of the collected data is carried out using streamlined procedures, mostly quantitative in nature.

Qualitative research involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Observations and conclusions are of a qualitative nature and are carried out in a non-standardized form. Qualitative data can be quantified, but this is preceded by special procedures. For example, the opinion of several respondents about an advertisement for a product may be verbally expressed in different ways. Only as a result of additional analysis, all opinions are divided into three categories: negative, positive and neutral, after which it is possible to determine how many opinions belong to each of the three categories. Such an intermediate procedure is superfluous if a closed form of questions is used immediately during the survey.

Observation and its role in marketing research.

Qualitative research is based on observational methods that involve observation rather than communication with respondents. Most of these methods are based on approaches developed by psychologists.

Observation in marketing research is a method of collecting primary marketing information about the object under study by observing selected groups of people, actions and situations. At the same time, the researcher directly perceives and registers all factors related to the object under study and significant from the point of view of the objectives of the study.

Observation in marketing research can be aimed at achieving various goals. It can be used as a source of information for building hypotheses, serve to test the data obtained by other methods, it can be used to extract additional information about the object under study.

The variety of ways of conducting observations is determined by four approaches to their implementation: direct or indirect observation, open or covert, structured or unstructured, carried out with the help of a person or mechanical means.

Direct observation involves direct observation of the behavior of, say, shoppers in a store, such as the order in which they examine the items displayed on the counter. When using indirect observation, the results of a certain behavior are studied, and not the behavior itself. This often uses historical data, such as data on the dynamics of stocks of certain goods, which can be useful in studying shifts in the market situation.

Open observation assumes that people are aware that they are being observed, for example, when conducting special experiments. However, the presence of observers affects the behavior of the observed, so we should strive to minimize it.

Covert surveillance satisfies these requirements, when the subject does not assume that he is being watched. For example, in stores, they can secretly observe how the seller politely treats customers and helps them make a purchase.

When conducting structured observation, the observer determines in advance what he will observe and record. All other behaviors are ignored. A standard observation sheet is often used, minimizing the observer's time.

This method makes it possible to carry out observations according to a predetermined scheme, to fix the result of observations for each selected category. These observations are not of a random or arbitrary nature, but are carried out in accordance with a certain plan, and have a high degree of completeness. It is easier for the researcher to generalize the results obtained from different observers.

When unstructured observation is carried out, the observer fixes all types of behavior in the studied episode. This type of behavior is often used in exploratory research.

Usually the observational method is used in conjunction with other methods. The results obtained in this case complement and control each other. So, if observation is used to control data obtained by other methods, it should be as strictly structured as possible, carried out in the conditions in which controlled information was collected.

The shortcomings of the method of observation are inherent in all qualitative research. With direct observation, the behavior of a small group of people under certain conditions is usually studied, therefore, the question arises about the reliability of the data obtained. In this case, there is a subjective interpretation of the latter. Human perception is limited, so the researcher may miss, not notice some important manifestations of the situation being studied. Usually, the researcher is not able, on the basis of the method of observation, to deepen the results obtained and reveal the interests, motives, and relationships that underlie certain behavior. In some cases, this limitation can be overcome, for example, by studying the reaction of children to a new toy. In addition, it must be borne in mind that the presence of an observer can influence the observed situation. The level of this influence is extremely difficult to determine.

Observation is a very laborious method. Drawing up the results of observations sometimes takes twice as much time as the observation itself. It should complement other methods of marketing research, and is used when the information needed by the researcher cannot be obtained in any other way.

An in-depth interview consists of a trained interviewer asking a group of probing questions in order to understand why group members behave in a certain way or what they think about a certain issue. The respondent is asked questions on the topic under study, to which he answers in any form. At the same time, the interviewer asks questions like: “Why did you answer in this way?”, “Can you justify your point of view?”, “Can you give any special arguments?”. The answers to such questions help the interviewer to better understand the processes taking place in the respondent's head.

This method is used to collect information about new concepts, design, advertising and other methods of product promotion; it helps to better understand consumer behavior, the emotional and personal aspects of consumer life, decision-making at the individual level, and obtain data on the use of certain products.

Here, first of all, it is necessary to achieve a benevolent atmosphere when communicating with the interviewee. It is desirable for the interviewer to be attentive both to the verbal design and to the feelings contained in the words.

The hardest part is summarizing the data from the individual surveys into a final report.

The analysis of the protocol consists in placing the respondent in a certain decision-making situation, while he must verbally describe all the factors and arguments that guided him in making the decision.

The protocol analysis method is used in the analysis of decisions that are distributed over time, such as decisions to buy a house. In this case, the researcher collects into a single whole the individual decisions made at its individual stages.

In addition, this method is used in the analysis of decisions, the process of making which is very short. In this case, the protocol analysis method, as it were, slows down the speed of decision-making. For example, buying chewing gum, usually people do not think about this purchase. Analysis of the protocol makes it possible to understand some of the internal aspects of such purchases.

When using projection methods, respondents are placed in certain simulated situations in the hope that respondents will give information about themselves that cannot be obtained in direct interviews, for example, regarding drug use, alcohol, tips, etc. The following specific methods that are part of the projection methods can be distinguished: associative methods, sentence completion testing, illustration testing, drawing testing, role-playing, retrospective conversations and conversations based on creative imagination.

Survey methods.

Quantitative data collection or survey methods collect primary information by directly asking people questions about their level of knowledge, attitudes towards the product, preferences and purchasing behavior. The survey can be structured or unstructured. In the first case, all respondents answer the same questions, in the second case, the interviewer asks questions depending on the answers received.

Information from respondents during surveys is collected in three ways: by asking questions to respondents by interviewers, the answers to which the interviewer records; by asking questions using a computer; by self-completion of questionnaires by respondents.

The first method has the following advantages:

• 1. The presence of feedback from the respondents, which will make it possible to manage the survey process.
• 2. Ability to establish trust between the respondent and the interviewer at the beginning of the survey.
• 3. The ability to take into account the characteristics and level of education of the respondents during the survey, for example, to help the respondent understand the gradations of the scales used.

Flaws this method exactly correspond to the merits of the second and are as follows:

High speed of implementation of this approach in comparison with personal interviewing. The computer can quickly ask questions adapted to the answers to previous questions; quickly dial randomly selected phone numbers; take into account the characteristics of each respondent.

The absence of interviewer errors: he does not get tired, he cannot be bribed.

Using pictures: graphs, video materials integrated into questions that appear on the computer screen.

Data processing in real time. The received information is directly sent to the database and is available for analysis at any time.

The subjective qualities of the interviewer do not affect the answers received, especially for personal questions. Respondents do not try to give answers that please the interviewer.

Among the disadvantages of the computer method of surveys are relatively high costs due to the acquisition and use of computers, software, cleaning of computer viruses after each survey, etc.

The main specific feature of the third method is that the respondent answers the questions of the questionnaire transmitted or sent to him independently, without the participation of the interviewer or the use of a computer.

The advantages of this method are as follows:

Relatively low cost, due to the lack of interviewers, computer equipment.

Independent organization of answers to questions by the respondents, who themselves choose the time and speed of answering questions, create for themselves the most comfortable conditions for answering questions.

The absence of a certain influence on the part of the interviewer or the computer, which creates more comfortable conditions for respondents to answer questions.

The disadvantages of this survey method, first of all, are that since the respondent independently controls the answers to the questions of the questionnaire, his answers may contain errors due to misunderstanding, lack of due attention, etc., be incomplete; the timing of the survey may be violated or the questionnaires will not be returned at all. As a result of the foregoing, the questionnaires should be developed in the most careful way, contain clear and complete instructions.

Determining the sample size.

On this stage marketing decisions, it becomes necessary to obtain information about the parameters of the "group" among whose members marketing research will be conducted. For example, a marketing manager wants to know the sales volume of his company's products through various types of retail stores. Such a "group" in statistics is called the general population or simply the population. Sometimes the population is small enough for a manager to examine all of its members. Usually, this is impossible to do: to study, for example, the opinion of all children aged 3 to 5 years regarding toys of a certain type. Therefore, only a part of the population, called the sample, is studied.

It should be noted that, since the sample is part of the population under study, the data obtained from the sample will most likely not correspond exactly to the data that could be obtained from all units of the population. Sampling is primarily based on knowledge of the sample outline, which is understood as a list of all population units from which sample units are selected. For example, if we consider all car service shops of the city as a set, then we need to have a list of such shops, considered as a contour within which the sample is formed.

The sample contour inevitably contains an error, called the sample contour error, which characterizes the degree of deviation from the true size of the population. Obviously, there is no complete official list of all auto service shops, including semi-legal and illegal business in this area. The researcher must inform the customer of the work about the size of the sampling contour error.

There are three main sampling problems.

First of all, based on the essence of the problem under consideration, it is necessary to determine what is the sample unit. For example, a manufacturing company cell phones decided to explore the potential market for their products. It was decided to study the opinion on this issue of both decision-makers on the choice of communication equipment in various organizations, and heads of families who determine this policy in the family.

It is also very important to define the contour of the sample. For example, a list of all homeowners in a particular region. In order to fulfill the rule of representativeness of the study being conducted, it is necessary to pay attention to the method by which the sample units are selected from the sample outline. Here we are talking about sample planning.

Finally, the issue of sample size, which determines the number of sample units studied, needs to be addressed. The sample size very rarely depends on the size of the population. Therefore, the sample size for one region is not necessarily significantly smaller than the sample size for the state as a whole.

1. General characteristics of data collection methods

Data collection methods in marketing research can be classified into two groups: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research is usually identified with the conduct of various surveys based on the use of structured closed questions, which are answered by a large number of respondents.

The characteristic features of such studies are: a clearly defined format of the collected data and sources of their receipt, the processing of the collected data is carried out using ordered procedures, mostly quantitative in nature.

Qualitative research involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Observations and conclusions are of a qualitative nature and are carried out in a non-standardized form. Qualitative data can be quantified, but this is preceded by special procedures. For example, the opinion of several respondents about alcohol advertising may be verbally expressed in different ways. Only as a result of additional analysis, all opinions are divided into three categories: negative, positive and neutral, after which it is possible to determine how many opinions belong to each of the three categories. Such an intermediate procedure is superfluous if a closed form of questions is used immediately during the survey.

However, why is a qualitative, “soft” approach often used? Market researchers have found that using large-scale surveys does not always produce consistent results. For example, Procter & Gamble is interested in improving Tide laundry detergent. To do this, it is more effective to invite a group of housewives and, with the participation of the company's marketers, to discuss ways to improve this washing powder (quality, design, packaging, etc.).

The following qualitative research methods will be discussed below: observations, focus groups, in-depth interviews, protocol analyzes, projection, physiological measurements.

2. Observation and its role in marketing research

The basis of qualitative research is observational methods, which involve observation rather than communication with respondents. Most of these methods are based on approaches developed by psychologists.

Observation in marketing research is a method of collecting primary marketing information about the object under study by observing selected groups of people, actions and situations. At the same time, the researcher directly perceives and registers all factors related to the object under study and significant from the point of view of the objectives of the study.

Observation in marketing research can be aimed at achieving various goals. It can be used as a source of information for building hypotheses, serve to test the data obtained by other methods, it can be used to obtain additional information about the object under study.

The variety of methods for conducting observations is determined by four approaches to their implementation: direct or indirect observation, open or covert, structured or unstructured, carried out with the help of a person or mechanical means.

Direct observation involves direct observation of the behavior of, say, shoppers in a store (for example, in what order they examine the products displayed on the counter). When using indirect observation, the results of a certain behavior are studied, and not the behavior itself. Historical data is often used here, for example, data on the dynamics of stocks of certain goods over the years can be useful in studying shifts in the market situation. In addition, physical evidence of some events may be examined. For example, based on the results of studying the contents of garbage cans, we can conclude to what extent the packaging (cans, bottles, bags, etc.) of which companies litters the environment the most.

Open observation assumes that people are aware that they are being observed, for example, when conducting special experiments. However, the presence of observers affects the behavior of the observed, so we should strive to minimize it.

Covert surveillance satisfies these requirements, when the subject does not assume that he is being observed. For example, in stores, they can covertly observe how the seller treats customers politely and helps them make a purchase.

When conducting structured observation, the observer determines in advance what he will observe and record.

All other behaviors are ignored. A standard observation sheet is often used, minimizing the observer's time.

Structured observation is used to check the results obtained by other methods, to refine them. It can also be used as the main method of collecting information to accurately describe the behavior of the object of study and test certain hypotheses.

Its application requires a good preliminary knowledge of the subject of research, since in the process of developing a structured observation procedure, the researcher must build a classification system for the phenomena that make up the observed situation and standardize the categories of observation. The classification system should be expressed in the terms in which the subsequent analysis is intended to be carried out.

The following is an example of structured observation.

Let's say that on behalf of a company that produces orange juice of a certain brand, you covertly study the behavior of buyers of orange juice in a self-service store. You have received the consent of the management of this store and dressed in the uniform of the seller. Record the results of your observations on paper. In order to make it easier to present the results of your observations in a form convenient for drawing conclusions, first of all, observations should be recorded for separate logical categories, classifying interdependent goods into the following groups: fresh oranges, bottled juices, juices in bags, chilled fresh oranges and frozen oranges (Table 1). Then, for each group, alternative approaches are identified for choosing a product of a certain brand: a product of a certain brand is selected immediately; a product of a certain brand is selected after comparison with products of other brands; goods of this brand are inspected, but not bought; the buyer did not stop at the stand with this product. In addition, it is desirable to divide buyers into the following categories: one buyer, two adult buyers, one adult buyer with children. It is also possible to classify buyers according to other criteria (gender, age, whether or not he uses a trolley/basket for shopping, etc.).

Thus, the form of observations should indicate what kind of behavior is observed and how it should be recorded. In addition, the name of the researcher, the date and time of observation are indicated in the header of the form.

Table 1

Observation registration form

Observer
Place of observation
date
time of day

The structure of the group of observables

Group size: ...........adults............children
Gender: Adults: ...........male.............female
Children: ..................male.............female

Usage:

• food trolleys
• grocery basket
• Nothing

Registration of behavior in the store

Usage: ........ shopping list ........ calculator ......... coupons
Time of purchase: ......... Quantity purchased ..........

The above approach involves first classifying and then making observations. Although it is possible to conduct an initial observation, and then spread the results of observations into separate categories.

Better to use the first approach. It makes it possible to carry out observations according to a predetermined scheme, to record the results of observations for each selected category. These observations are not of a random or arbitrary nature, but are carried out in accordance with a certain plan; have a high degree of completion. It is easier for the researcher to generalize the results obtained from different observers.

When unstructured observation is carried out, the observer fixes all kinds of behavior in the studied episode. This type of behavior is often used in exploratory research. For example, a construction tool company may send employees to study areas and frequency of use. this tool when building houses. The results of observations are used to improve this tool.

Sometimes a human observer can be replaced by a special mechanical device. This substitution is due to greater accuracy, lower cost, or functional reasons. For example, when studying street traffic, automatic devices record each car whose wheels have crossed a special plate. It is also more reliable and easier to study a family's viewing habits of certain television programs using a special device than on the basis of human observations.

For successful observation, certain conditions must be met:

1. Observations should be carried out over a relatively short period of time. For example, from a time and cost point of view, it is hardly worthwhile to observe the process of buying a house as a whole. Although this can be done in parts, at separate stages of this process.
2. Observed processes and phenomena should be available for observation, take place in public. This requirement is not satisfied, for example, by a private conversation.
3. Observations should be subjected only to such behavior, which is not based on a frequently repeated, systematic activity that the respondent is not able to remember well. For example, a person usually cannot remember which radio program he listened to in his car on the last Monday on his way to work.

Ideally, the objects of observation should not be aware that their behavior is being observed. In some cases, observation is the only way to obtain accurate information. For example, young children are not able to verbally express their attitude towards a new toy, but such information can be obtained by watching children play with this toy or not.

Usually the observational method is used in conjunction with other methods. The results obtained in this case complement and check each other. So, if observation is used to control data obtained by other methods, it should be structured as strictly as possible, carried out in the conditions in which the information controlled by it was collected.

The shortcomings of the method of observation are inherent in all qualitative research. With direct observation, the behavior of a small group of people under certain conditions is usually studied, therefore, the question arises about the representativeness of the data obtained. In this case, there is a subjective interpretation of the data obtained. Human perception is limited, so the researcher may miss, not notice some important manifestations of the situation being studied. Usually, the researcher is not able, on the basis of the method of observation, to deepen the results obtained and reveal the interests, motives, and relationships that underlie certain behavior. In some cases, this limitation can be overcome, for example, by studying the reaction of children to a new toy. In addition, it must be borne in mind that the presence of an observer can influence the observed situation. The size of this influence is extremely difficult to determine.

Observation is a very laborious method. Drawing up the results of observations sometimes takes twice as much time as the observation itself.

When using the method of observation, one must strive to overcome the following two shortcomings. The first is the desire to “suck out” all conceivable and unthinkable information from non-representative observations. The second is in an effort to thoughtlessly use quantitative characteristics. The path to success is the judicious use of both quantitative and qualitative methods; conducting both large-scale surveys and observations in small groups.

According to the nature of the environment, observation can be field, which means that the processes take place in a natural setting (in a store, near a store window), or laboratory, i.e. carried out in an artificially created situation.

The results of observations are recorded using audio or video equipment, in notebooks, etc.

Observation difficulties are divided into subjective (associated with the personality of the observer) and objective (not dependent on the observer).

The subjective difficulties of observation include the possibility of the researcher understanding and interpreting the behavior and actions of other people through the prism of his own “I”, through his system of value orientations, as well as the emotional coloring of human perception and the inevitability of the influence of the researcher’s past experience on the results of observation. In addition, observation is always subordinated to the purpose of the study, which outlines the scope of what is observed, giving it a selective character. As a consequence, the choice of facts to observe and record is highly dependent on the observer.

The objective difficulties of observation include, first of all, the limited time of observation by the time of the event. In addition, not all factors of interest are directly observable.

The presence of an observer can cause a feeling of embarrassment in the observed, change the usual stereotypes of behavior.

The personal qualities of the observer, the manifestation of his attitude to ongoing events can also have a serious impact on the behavior of the observed.

Observation should complement other methods of marketing research and be used when the information needed by the researcher cannot be obtained in any other way. This happens when people do not want or cannot accurately and in detail describe the sequence of their actions. In habitual situations, the actions of people in most cases acquire an “automatic” character. In this case, it is rather difficult for a person to say which of the usual actions he performed and why. In addition, the frequently repeated situation itself becomes something given to him in his mind, and its features, its character traits are erased. On the other hand, with excessive emotional stress, a person acts as if without reasoning, on the first impulse, and subsequently he can rarely explain why he performed one action and not another.

Observing the activity being studied from the outside, the observer can fix such characteristics of it as the sequence and frequency of certain actions, changes in the emotional atmosphere, etc., i.e. obtain information that is not available to obtain using other methods.

To obtain the information necessary for the purposes of the study, i.e. get information about important characteristics of the object under study, not to miss any important facts related to its activities, or significant information about it, it is necessary to carefully develop a plan and program of observation in advance. When planning, it is necessary to clearly establish the timing of the observation and determine the means of collecting information. In addition, it is important for the researcher to resolve the issue of limiting the scope of observations, given the possibilities available to him (time, finances, the number of assistants and their qualifications), as well as to take into account possible obstacles (administrative or psychological difficulties, difficulties associated with obtaining and fixing information).

The following stages of observation are distinguished.

Determination of the goal, setting tasks, establishing the object and subject of observation. Depending on the objectives of the study, one or a limited number of aspects of the object's activity is usually chosen as the subject of observation, for example, the route of the buyer's movement in the store's trading floor is being studied.

Ensuring access to the environment, obtaining appropriate permits, establishing contacts with people.

The choice of observation method and the development of a procedure based on pre-collected materials.

Before proceeding with the observation, it is necessary to pre-select signs, units of observation, by which it will be possible to judge the situation that interests the researcher. As a unit of observation (and from the side of the observed, it is a unit of behavior), any complex set of actions can be singled out and fixed. different nature, for example, the buyer can simply look at a certain product, or maybe pick it up.

In order for observational data to be understandable to other researchers, and the results of similar studies to be comparable, it is necessary to develop a language, a system of concepts that will be used to describe the results of observations. For example, if there is a reaction to an advertisement in a store, then it should be clearly identified and recorded different kinds manifestations of the emotional state (categories): calmness, excitement, etc.

Preparation technical documents and equipment (duplication of cards, protocols, instructions for observers, preparation of technical equipment, stationery, etc.).

After the development of the plan, observations are carried out, data are collected, and information is accumulated.

Here, first of all, you need to select observers. In addition to such qualities as attention, patience, the ability to fix changes in the observed situation, one of the main requirements for the observer is the requirement of conscientiousness.

The observer must continuously monitor his actions so that their influence on the observed situation and, therefore, its change is minimal.

It is essential that each observer receive appropriate training. Observer training involves simultaneously developing the ability to see significant actions, as well as the ability to remember and keep accurate records.

It must be remembered that at any given moment a person is able to simultaneously perceive from five to ten discrete units. If we are talking about a fairly wide scope of observations, it is advisable to entrust the work to several observers, while strictly distributing functions.

The best way to prepare observers is through exercises where the trainees take notes, observing either specially enacted or videotaped situations.

If this is not possible, then the researcher can train assistants in the process of real observations. To do this, it is necessary that he, along with those who are being trained, be present at the observation and keep parallel records. After observation, the notes of the researcher and the student are compared, and the researcher explains the most important and difficult points.

An important step in the preparation of the observer is the development of instructions. A well-prepared instruction facilitates the work of observers and unifies the material they collect.

The instructions give precise instructions on the criteria by which certain actions, events, phenomena will be brought under one or another category. It also emphasizes the need to keep records strictly in accordance with the existing categories. So, the observer cannot mark “aggressiveness” if this category is not marked in the code.

The instruction must also contain requirements for the method of fixing observed events; it may contain explanations of how to use the applicable measurement scales.

If the recording requires interpretation of the intentions of the persons being studied, then the instructions should either indicate the principle or list the indicators on the basis of which the observer will make his judgments. All this is necessary to ensure that all observers, if possible, evaluate the observations in the same way.

Fixation of the results of observations can be carried out in the form of: a) short-term recording, carried out “on a hot trail”, as far as the place and time allow; b) cards used to register information relating to observed persons, phenomena, processes; c) observation protocol, which is an extended version of the card; d) a diary of observations, in which all the necessary information, statements, behavior of individuals, their own reflections, difficulties are systematically entered day after day; e) photo, video, sound recording.

Fixing the results of observations is at the same time a means of double control: control over the observer and control over possible deviations within the observed situation or process.

Unstructured observation (see below) most often does not have rigid forms of fixation. Here, first of all, it is important that the record makes it possible to determine what is only an observation, and what is, to some extent, an interpretation of the observed events. Otherwise, the observational data will be mixed with the conclusions.

Surveillance can be controlled different ways: a) holding a conversation with the participants in the situation; b) referring to documents related to this event; c) comparing the results of one's own observation and the observation made by another also qualified observer; d) sending observation reports to other researchers for the purpose of repeating observations.

The observation report must contain: a) careful documentation of the time, place and circumstances of the observation, b) information on the role of the observer in the study, the method of observation; c) characteristics of the observed persons; d) observer's own notes and interpretations; e) evaluation of the reliability of the obtained results.

Usually one of three types of reliability assessment is used:

• coefficient of agreement of observers (the same event is observed simultaneously by different observers);
• stability (one and the same observer observes at different times);
• reliability coefficient (different observers observe at different times).

When planning an observation, the researcher first of all needs to develop a hypothesis, on the basis of which, to build a classification system for those facts, phenomena that make up the observed situation and meet the goals of the study. Without this, recorded facts will be isolated, indeterminate, and therefore meaningless. However, this classification system should not be made too complete and rigid. In this case, the researcher will be forced to discard all the facts that do not fit into it.

An observer who does not have a classification system can see a lot, but fix and define very little. A researcher who has a too complete and rigid classification system will most often record only those phenomena and facts that can confirm his preliminary concepts.

When developing an observation plan, it is necessary to determine the most significant characteristics of the conditions and situations in which the activity of the observed takes place, i.e. Decide where and when to observe.

3. Focus group method

There are four main goals for this method:

1. Generating ideas, such as product improvement, product design, packaging, or new product development.
2. Studying the colloquial vocabulary of consumers, which may be useful, say, when conducting advertising campaign, compiling questionnaires, etc.
3. Acquaintance with the needs of consumers, their perception, motives and their attitude to the product under study, its brand, methods of its promotion, which is very important in determining the goals of marketing research.
4. Better understanding of data collected from quantitative research. Sometimes members of the focus group help to better understand the results of the survey.
5. The study of emotional and behavioral responses to certain types advertising.

Usually the work of the group is recorded using audio and video equipment, and its results can be the basis for quantitative research, for example, through a survey.

Obviously, the possibilities and effectiveness of using this method are strongly influenced by culture, traditions of communication, etc. residents of different regions and countries. This is taken into account when forming a focus group, for example, determining its size, the role and degree of activity of the moderator.

The optimal focus group size ranges from 8 to 12 people. With a smaller number of participants, the necessary dynamics for the productive work of the group is not created, and the facilitator has to make a lot of efforts to activate the work of the group. With a group size exceeding 12 people, it is difficult to start productive discussions, the group can break into subgroups in which conversations can be held on abstract topics, and only a few people take part in the discussion itself.

Unfortunately, it is difficult to determine the composition of the group in advance. For example, 12 people express their desire to take part in the discussion, but in fact only 6 people are present.

As for the composition of the group, it is recommended to form it based on the principle of homogeneity of the composition of its participants (by age, type of activity, marital status, etc.). In this case, it is considered that Better conditions for an open discussion.

The choice of group members is primarily determined by the objectives of the study. For example, if the goal is to generate new ideas about product packaging, consumers who have purchased products of a certain brand are invited as focus group participants. Usually, potential participants are invited to participate in the discussion by phone, although sometimes those who want to participate in the group are found among the buyers right in the store. It is desirable that the facilitator takes part in the process of forming the group.

When “recruiting” members of the group, they use both a monetary form of payment for their labor, and in kind in the form of free provision of certain goods. Very often, on the eve of the day of the focus group, potential participants are reminded of this. In this case, in case of refusal to take part in the discussion, it is possible to replace such participants.

Best of all, when the discussion is expected to last more than 1.5 hours, it should be held in a room adapted for such discussions, preferably at a round table, in an atmosphere of peace and quiet conducive to mental work.

The success of the focus group largely depends on the effectiveness of the leader, who, based on a deep understanding of the goals and objectives of the discussion, manages its conduct without direct intervention in the course of the discussion. He should strive for a balance between natural discussion among participants and avoidance of the topic under discussion. The facilitator should be a highly communicative person, showing a deep interest and involvement in the positions and comments of the group members. Usually, even before the focus group discussion begins, the facilitator prepares detailed plan her work, to strive to increase the level of their knowledge on the issues under discussion.

When analyzing the results of the group's work, two important factors should be taken into account. First, to translate the statements of the participants in the discussion into the language of categories and concepts of the topic under discussion and to determine the degree of consistency of their opinions.

Secondly, it is necessary to determine to what extent the characteristics of the focus group participants are typical for the consumers of the studied target market.

The main advantages of a focus group include the following:

1. The ability to express opinions honestly and freely, generate fresh ideas, especially if the discussion uses the method brainstorming.
2. The opportunity for the customer to take part in the formation of the goals and objectives of the discussion, to observe the work of the group causes a fairly high confidence in the result of its work. The customer, at times, begins to use these results in practical work even before receiving an official report.
3. A variety of directions for using this method, as discussed earlier.
4. The ability to study respondents who, in more formal, structured situations, are not amenable to study, not wanting, for example, to take part in a survey.

Summing up the above, the disadvantages of this method include possible non-representativeness, subjective interpretation of the results obtained, high cost per group member.

The fact that the results of the work of the focus group may not be representative, in relation to the general population as a whole, they are determined by the following. The work of such a group, as a rule, is attended by respondents who are more active and willing to respond to proposals of this type compared to the general population as a whole. In addition, this is facilitated by the small, as a rule, homogeneous composition of the focus group, which may include professional respondents at the last moment.

The subjectivism of the interpretation of the results of the group's work is due to the fact that it is possible to focus on the facts that support the point of view of the leader and ignore other points of view. Further, the participation of the customer in the preparation and conduct of the focus group can also determine the desired results. As noted earlier, the customer can use the results of the group's work even before receiving the official report.

The costs of using this method are determined as follows. Thus, in the United States, the cost of maintaining numerous telephone conversations expressed at approximately $25 per participant. A focus group incentive costs approximately $30. The salary of a qualified presenter for one session is 1500-2000 dollars. In addition, you should take into account the cost of renting the premises, the cost of using technical means. Typically, these costs are hundreds of dollars per hour of rental. Then there are hidden costs that are not directly included in the total costs, for example, due to the participation of the customer in the study.

The use of modern communication technologies expands the range of use of focus groups. For example, organizing the interaction of two groups holding a session in different cities.

4. Other qualitative methods

The following qualitative research methods will be briefly described below: in-depth interviews, protocol analysis, and projection methods.

An in-depth interview consists of a sequence of probing questions asked by a qualified interviewer to the respondent in order to understand why they behave in a certain way or what they think about a certain issue. The respondent is asked questions on the topic under study, to which he answers in any form. At the same time, the interviewer asks questions like: “Why did you answer in such a way?”, “Can you justify your point of view?”, “Can you give any special arguments?” The answers to such questions help the interviewer to better understand the processes taking place in the respondent's head.

This method is used to collect information about new concepts, design, advertising and other methods of product promotion; it helps to better understand consumer behavior, the emotional and personal aspects of consumer life, decision-making at the individual level, and obtain data on the use of certain products.

Here, first of all, it is necessary to achieve a benevolent atmosphere when communicating with the interviewee. For this it is necessary that:

• the interviewer listened to the interviewee patiently and friendly, but was critical;
• the interviewer did not put pressure on the interviewee;
• did not discuss.

He can speak and ask only under certain conditions:

• to help the interviewee speak;
• to dispel his anxiety, which may interfere with the establishment of contact between the interviewer and the interviewee;
• to return the conversation to a question that was missed or insufficiently covered.

It is desirable for the interviewer to be attentive both to the verbal design and to the feelings contained in the words.

The hardest part is summarizing the data from the individual surveys into a final report. When using this method, a tape recorder is used or detailed recordings are kept.

The analysis of the protocol consists in placing the respondent in a certain decision-making situation, while he must verbally describe all the factors and arguments that guided him in making the decision. Sometimes, when applying this method, a tape recorder is used. The researcher then analyzes the protocols submitted by the respondents.

The protocol analysis method is used in the analysis of decisions, the adoption of which is distributed over time, for example, the decision to buy a house. In this case, the researcher collects into a single whole the individual decisions made at its individual stages.

In addition, this method is used in the analysis of decisions, the process of making which is very short. In this case, the protocol analysis method, as it were, slows down the speed of decision-making. For example, when buying chewing gum, people usually do not think about this purchase. Analysis of the protocol makes it possible to understand some of the internal aspects of such purchases.

Using projection methods Respondents are placed in certain simulated situations in the hope that respondents will provide information about themselves that is not available in direct interviews, such as drug use, alcohol use, tips, etc. The following specific methods that are part of the projection methods can be distinguished: associative methods, sentence completion testing, illustration testing, drawing testing, role-playing, retrospective conversations and conversations based on creative imagination.

Associative methods include associative conversations and associative word testing or word association. In the process of an associative conversation, the respondent is guided by questions of this kind: “What makes you think about this or that ...?”, “What thoughts do you now have in connection with ....?” etc. This method allows the interviewee to say whatever comes to mind. In the event that some respondents have difficulty in clarifying the level of their preferences, if only because of an insufficient vocabulary, they are limited to several answers.

An associative test of words consists in reading the words to the respondent, who in response must pronounce the first word that came to his mind. For example, words used in advertising, product names and brands are tested. Thus, an attempt is made to reveal the true feelings of the respondents in relation to the object of the test. At the same time, the response delay time is also fixed, bearing in mind that a large response delay means the absence of a clearly defined association of the tested word with some other words (pleasant, beautiful, ugly, unaesthetic ...). Let's say we were testing variants of the names of a new soft drink. Respondents-students matched one of the names with such words as “light, hissing, cold”, which essentially corresponded to the real consumer properties of this drink.

The sentence completion test consists of giving respondents an unfinished sentence, which they must complete in their own words. The respondent is expected to provide some information about themselves in completing this task. Let's say a tea company decides to expand its market to teenagers. The researcher asked the students of one of the schools to complete the following sentences:

• The one who drinks tea is........
• Tea is good to drink when ........
• My friends think tea is...

Next, the endings of sentences are analyzed. Say, in the endings of the first sentence, such words as “healthy”, “peppy” predominate. Do the same with the rest of the offers. The result of such a study may be the desire to promote tea in the studied market segment.

Illustration testing consists in the fact that research participants are shown a certain illustration (drawing or photograph) depicting people put in a typical situation and solving some problems, and asked to describe their reaction to it. The researcher analyzes the content of these descriptions in order to determine the feelings, reactions caused by this illustration. This method is used to select the best options for advertising, illustrations for brochures, images on packaging, etc., as well as their accompanying headlines. An analysis of the materials received shows that in many cases people transfer their own problems to the characters and thus more easily give information that they would not dare to give directly.

Testing illustrations may involve writing in a free space above the head of one of the characters, usually depicted simply as an outline, his comments on the situation depicted in the figure, followed by analysis of these notes. The interviewee must put himself in the place of this character and answer for him.

When playing roles, participants are asked to enter the role of one of the characters in a particular situation (friend, neighbor, colleague) and describe their actions in the situation under study. In this way, positive or negative latent reactions, feelings, value systems are studied. For example, a participant is introduced into a situation where his friend has bought an expensive car of a certain brand and is asked to comment on this purchase to a third party.

In the course of a retrospective conversation, the interviewee is asked to recall some scenes, some actions, indicative of the area they want to study. The examiner helps the interviewee recall, describe in detail what he remembers. For example, during a conversation, the interviewee describes how he smokes his first cigarette of the day.

When conducting a conversation based on the creative imagination, the interviewee is placed in a certain hypothetical situation. The method of conducting a conversation is to energetically encourage a person to imagine his reactions, feelings, behavior that would be inherent in him if he were in a similar situation. He projects his attitudes, feelings, ideas on the topic under study onto the future.

The implementation of all the above methods is based on the high professionalism of the persons conducting them, which leads to a high cost of their implementation. This is especially true for the interpretation of the results obtained. Therefore, these methods are not widely used in commercial marketing research.

Typically, these methods are used after the researcher, based on the survey, has already received information that gives him the opportunity to formulate several hypotheses, which will either be confirmed or refuted.

Further, among the qualitative methods are physiological measurements based on the study of involuntary reactions of respondents to marketing stimuli. When carrying out such measurements, special equipment is used. For example, the expansion and movement of pupils is fixed when studying certain goods, pictures, etc. In addition, the electrical activity and perspiration of the respondents' skin can be measured, characterizing the degree of their excitation. However, this technique is unusual in nature, so it can make respondents nervous. Its use does not make it possible to separate positive reactions from negative ones.

An example is the conduct of special experiments to determine the attitude of children to various toys. In the course of their conduct, the behavior of children is monitored. Various toys are laid out in front of the children (various types, colors, made of different materials) and with the help of contact and non-contact sensors, video filming, eye movement, pupil size, pulse rate, perspiration, sequence and nature of the study of toys are recorded.

Physiological measurements for these reasons are rarely used in marketing research.

5. Survey methods

Let us characterize in more detail the quantitative methods of collecting primary data or survey methods.

The survey consists in collecting primary information by directly asking people questions about their level of knowledge, attitudes towards the product, preferences and purchasing behavior. The survey may be structured or unstructured; in the first case, all respondents answer the same questions, in the second case, the interviewer asks questions depending on the answers received.

When conducting a survey, a group of respondents may be subjected to either single or multiple surveys. In the first case, a kind of cross section of this group is obtained in many parameters for a fixed point in time (cross-sectional study - “cross-sectional” study). For example, the editorial offices of magazines and newspapers conduct one-time selective surveys of their readers by such parameters as age, gender, level of education, occupation, etc. Since, as a rule, large sample sizes are used in these studies, these studies are usually called sample surveys.

In the second case, the same group of respondents, called a panel, is repeatedly studied over a certain period of time (longitudinal study - “longitudinal” study). Different types of panels are used in many marketing researches. In this case, it is often said that a panel survey method is used.

Survey methods have the following advantages.

1. A high level of standardization due to the fact that all respondents are asked the same questions with the same answer options.
2. Ease of implementation lies in the fact that it is not necessary to visit the respondents, giving them questionnaires by mail or by phone; don't need to use technical means and involve highly qualified professionals, as in the case of using the focus group method, in-depth interviews, etc.
3. The possibility of conducting an in-depth analysis lies in the formulation of consistent clarifying questions. For example, working mothers are asked how important it was to consider the location of a school when choosing a school for their children. The next question is how many schools were considered as possible options. Then questions are asked regarding occupation, features of work, income, family size.
4. The possibility of tabulation and statistical analysis consists in using the methods of mathematical statistics and the corresponding software packages for personal computers.
5. Analysis of the obtained results in relation to specific market segments. This is due to the ability to subdivide the overall sample into separate sub-samples according to demographic and other criteria.

table 2
Questionnaire example

1. Do you like wearing T-shirts?
Yes___
No___
No opinion___

2. What do you like about this T-shirt?
- style
- quality

3. What do you dislike about this T-shirt?
- style
- quality
- something else (please specify)

4. How do you rate the quality of this T-shirt?
- excellent
- good
- average
- bad

5. If you decide to buy this T-shirt, what price will suit you?
indicate the figure in rubles ________

6. If you buy a T-shirt, for what purpose?
for everyday wear__
for relax__
for sports__
for others as a gift__

Respondent data
Floor:
husband__
wives__

Age (circle):
15–24 | 25–34 | 35–44 | 45 and over

Enter your total household income (in US dollars):
Up to 25 | 25–50 | 50–100 | 100–300 | 300–1000 | Over 1000 thousand dollars

Information during surveys is collected from respondents in three ways:

1. By posing questions to respondents by interviewers, the answers to which the interviewer fixes (Table 2 provides an example of a questionnaire used when interviewing buyers regarding their attitude to T-shirts of a certain brand);
2. By asking questions using a computer;
3. By self-completion of questionnaires by respondents.

The first method has the following advantages:

1. The presence of feedback from respondents, which makes it possible to manage the survey process.
2. Possibility to establish trust between the respondent and the interviewer at the beginning of the survey.
3. The ability to take into account the characteristics and level of education of the respondents during the survey, for example, help the respondent understand the gradations of the scales used.

The disadvantages of this method exactly correspond to the advantages of the second and will be discussed below.

The advantages of the second method are as follows:

1. High speed of implementation of this approach in comparison with personal interviewing. The computer can quickly ask questions adapted to the answers to previous questions; quickly dial randomly selected phone numbers; take into account the characteristics of each respondent.
2. The absence of interviewer mistakes, he does not get tired, he cannot be bribed.
3. The use of pictures, graphs, video materials integrated into questions that appear on the computer screen.
4. Data processing in real time. The received information is directly sent to the database and is available for tabulation and analysis at any time.
5. The subjective qualities of the interviewer do not affect the answers received, especially for personal questions. Respondents do not try to give answers that please the interviewer.

Among the disadvantages of the computer method of surveys are relatively high costs due to the acquisition and use of computers, software, cleaning of computer viruses after each survey, etc.

The main specific feature of the third method is that the respondent answers the questions of the questionnaire transmitted or sent to him independently without the participation of the interviewer or the use of a computer.

The advantages of this method are as follows:

1. Relatively low cost, due to the lack of interviewers, computer equipment.
2. Independent organization of answers to questions by respondents who independently choose the time and speed of answers to questions create for themselves the most comfortable conditions for answering questions.
3. The absence of some influence from the interviewer or computer, which creates a more comfortable environment for respondents to answer questions.

The disadvantages of this survey method are, first of all, that since the respondent independently controls the answers to the questions of the questionnaire, his answers may contain errors due to misunderstanding, lack of due attention, etc., be incomplete; the timing of the survey may be violated or the questionnaires will not be returned at all. As a result of the foregoing, the questionnaires should be developed in the most careful way, contain clear and complete instructions.

6. Panel examination method

The basic concept of this method is the concept of a panel.

Panel - a sample of surveyed units subjected to repeated research, and the subject of research remains constant. Panel members can be individual consumers, families, merchants and industrial organizations, experts who, with certain reservations, remain constant. The panel survey method has advantages over conventional one-time surveys: it makes it possible to compare the results of subsequent surveys with the results of previous ones and to establish trends and patterns in the development of the studied phenomena; provides a higher representativeness of the sample in relation to the general population.

All types of panels are subdivided according to the time of existence, the nature of the studied units (subjects), the nature of the problems studied (subjects of study), and the methods of obtaining information.

By the time of existence, the panels are divided into short-term (there are no more than a year) and long-term (no more than five years).

Long-term panels can provide continuous or periodic information. Continuous information is recorded in the diaries daily, and the diaries themselves are sent to the organizers of the study at regular intervals. Periodic information is received as surveys are conducted in the form of completed questionnaires.

By the nature of the units studied, the panels are divided into:

• consumer, whose members are individual consumers, families or households (for example, in the US, NFO Research, Inc. created a consumer panel that includes 450,000 households);
• trade, whose members are trade organizations and individuals engaged in trade;
• industrial enterprises, producing the studied goods;
• experts - experts on the problem under study.

The composition of the panel largely determines the information obtained during the surveys. The most difficult is the formation of family and individual consumer panels. Trade panels, industry panels, and expert panels have the advantage of having fewer members than consumer panels, which reduces the cost of building and monitoring them.

By the nature of the problems studied, the panels are divided into general and specialized. Specialized panels can be created to explore individual products or product groups. For example, they are used to test products and concepts for new products; tracking market trends, for example, studying the dynamics of the market share indicator; determining the sources from which consumers receive information about new products; testing video ads.

If general panels are formed to be representative of the composition of the region's population, then specialized panels can be formed as samples from the entire population (all families); all potential consumers of the studied goods; all actual consumers (owners) of the studied goods.

A specialized panel may also be non-representative, for example, it may be formed as a panel of activists, i.e. people who have a certain product and willingly give information about it. These panels are used for preliminary analysis Problems.

According to the method of obtaining information, four types of panels are possible:

1. panel members send the required information (filled diaries, questionnaires) by mail;
2. panel members are interviewed;
3. panel members complete diaries or questionnaires but collect information special workers;
4. panel members are interviewed at regular intervals, and within the time interval they send information by mail.

During the panel surveys:

• identify factors influencing the solution of the problem under study, and their dynamics;
• study the opinions and assessments of the subjects regarding goods and the organization of trade, their change over time;
• identify the decisions and intentions of the respondents and their implementation;
• reveal differences in the behavior of consumers belonging to different social strata, living in different regions and cities, and settlements different type;
• study the motives of the purchase and predict their development, etc.

Panels are divided into traditional and non-traditional. The latter include widely used public panels (omnibus panels). With traditional panels, the same questions are asked each time panel participants are surveyed. When using a public panel, each survey may have different objectives and different questions may be asked, with only one or a very limited number of questions being asked to a large number of interviewees. This type of panel is based on the use of existing, previously used sources of information that can be quickly used for a variety of research purposes. It turns out, as it were, an instant photograph of certain opinions, relationships, etc. Due to the limited number of questions asked and established channels for obtaining information this species panel survey is relatively cheap. For example, a marketer using this method, using, say, a well-functioning public opinion research system created by some organization specializing in this field, can quickly obtain information about the opinion of a certain group of consumers regarding a product of two different brands. On the basis of the traditional panel, these same parameters are studied in dynamics, for example, based on the study of the dynamics of purchases of a certain brand of goods carried out by consumers of certain market segments. Here you can explore the number of goods sold, the market share indicator, the change in consumer attitudes towards a product of a certain brand, its switching to the use of a product of another brand, that is, market trends. However, this is carried out on the basis of a specially conducted study.

The expediency of using certain panels is determined by the nature of the tasks to be solved and the amount of funds allocated. Therefore, before conducting consumer surveys, based on the objectives of the study, it is necessary to choose the type and size of the panel. Larger panels give more reliable results or, with the same reliability, have smaller confidence intervals. But larger panels require higher costs.

It should be noted that there are difficulties in ensuring the representativeness of the formed panel. In addition to the general problems of forming a representative sample, there are problems due to the fact that traditional panels are created for multiple studies. Panel members can simply refuse further cooperation, move to another city, switch to another consumer panel, or die. In addition, panel members, feeling in control, consciously or unconsciously change habitual image behavior: housewives are better prepared for purchases, the share of spontaneous purchases decreases.

As an example of using the panel survey method, consider the study of medical care and the drug market in France. The panel included 1,600 physicians (one in 20 physicians) working with private clients. Panel members wrote out prescriptions for one week every three months in a special tear-off book with spines. This made it possible to simultaneously receive a duplicate of the prescription and certain information recorded on the spine: the characteristics of the patient, the diagnosis, the therapeutic effect expected from the prescribed medicine, etc.

The panel formation process in this example included:

• division of the territory into regions and categories of cities;
• separation medical personnel into categories by specialty and age;
• drawing lots in each category to select the required number of doctors;
• verification of the sample by many parameters (the title of a doctor, the number of his clientele, etc.).

In addition, monthly statistics were collected on the sale of medicines in pharmacies (the panel included 307 pharmacies).

7. Methods for obtaining data from respondents

The following data collection methods can be distinguished when conducting surveys with the participation of interviewers or self-completion of questionnaires by respondents:

1. Interviewing carried out at the respondent's home. It is possible to pre-arrange the timing of the interview by phone. It is usually easier to establish a trusting relationship, showing product samples, promotional materials, etc. is possible. The home environment sets up for a fairly long interview with a high degree of concentration on the survey. However, this is an expensive data collection method.
2. Visitor interviews big stores. Companies conducting such surveys may have their offices in large stores. Store visitors are interviewed by the interviewer at the store or may be invited to be interviewed in the office. With the help of this method, without the use of special methodological approaches, it is difficult to ensure the representativeness of the survey results and the thoughtful attitude of the respondents to the questions asked. Compared to the first method, this method is cheaper.
3. Office interviews. It is usually used when collecting information about products for industrial and technical and office purposes. This method has essentially the same advantages and disadvantages as the first method, but it has a higher cost due to the use of more qualified interviewers.
4. Traditional telephone interview. The advantages of this method and data collection include the following: relatively low cost, the ability to reach a large number of respondents and provide high level representativeness, the possibility of carrying out in a relatively short period of time. This method has the following disadvantages: the impossibility of showing something to the respondent, the impossibility for the interviewer to have a personal impression of meeting with the respondents. (However, the lack of personal contact sometimes helps to obtain truthful answers to questions about the consumption of alcohol, contraceptives, etc.). Then there is the difficulty of obtaining lengthy answers to a large number of questions, since the respondent's patience may run out. In addition, it is difficult to check the quality of the interviews conducted and to establish whether all the planned respondents were actually interviewed. To control the quality of the survey, management can organize repeated test calls to previously interviewed respondents.
5. A telephone interview from a specially equipped room in which several interviewers work in parallel, to whose phones controllers can be connected. In addition to good opportunities for quality control of the work of interviewers, this method, in comparison with the traditional telephone interview, provides a reduction in costs due to the pooling of resources (logistics, software, etc.).
6. Telephone interview using a computer. Many consumer survey companies have specially equipped telephone interview rooms equipped with a special computer technology. This technique automatically dials the telephone numbers of respondents, then an introductory text appears on the monitor, and then - sequentially asked questions with possible answers. The interviewer reads the questions to the respondent and, using the code, fixes the named answer option. In this case, the next question is formulated depending on the answer to the previous question. This technology facilitates the work of the interviewer, speeds up the conduct of surveys and reduces the number of possible errors. The computer database of responses and their statistical processing are carried out automatically in real time. In some cases, the analysis of only part of the answers allows you to make certain decisions and stop further survey, saving time and resources.
7. Fully computerized interview. In this case, in addition to the previously described method, the respondent answers questions by pressing the buttons on his phone, or the questions appear on his computer monitor, and the respondent enters answers using a normal computer keyboard.
8. Group self-completion of questionnaires. This approach is used for the convenience and cost of interviewing. For example, in front of twenty or thirty members of the group, ads, after which they individually answer the questions of the questionnaire regarding the assessment of this video. Group members can be schoolchildren of the same class, students of the same study group, vacationers of any rest home, etc. Possible Feedback with the interviewer.
9. Self-filling of the left questionnaires. It is a survey option based on self-completion of questionnaires. After a preliminary oral explanation of the goals and objectives of the survey, the questionnaire is left with the respondent. Completed application form after certain time, or taken from the respondent, or he sends it by mail in an envelope with a paid response. This method is used when conducting surveys in a limited area that does not require the interviewer to move around a lot. This method is characterized by a high degree of return of answers, minimal influence of the interviewer on the respondents, relative cheapness and good control over the formation of a group of respondents. Employees of one organization, hotel residents, store visitors, etc. can be selected as respondents.
10. Mail survey. Questions and answers are sent by mail. The advantages of this method are due to the fact that it is not necessary to hire interviewers, the ease of forming groups of target respondents, and its cheapness. This method has the same disadvantages as self-completion of questionnaires without the participation of the interviewer. They have been discussed above. In addition, this method is characterized by a low percentage of returned responses, it is aimed mainly at fairly literate people living in countries with an efficient postal system. There is a possibility of distorting the results due to the fact that the respondent respondents in their own way social status, attitude to a particular product, advertising, etc. differ from those who did not answer the questionnaire (self-selection of respondents).

In table. Table 3 provides data characterizing the advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used interviewing methods.

Table 3

Advantages and disadvantages of the three main interviewing methods

8. Choice of specific survey methods

The choice of specific survey methods is based on the following groups of factors: goals and resources of the researcher; characteristics of respondents; characteristics of the questions asked by the researcher. Let us briefly characterize these three groups of factors.

The objectives of data collection follow from the objectives of the ongoing marketing research. Their definition is based on the requirements for obtaining information of the desired quality. The latter is determined by the allotted time for making a decision and the available resources.

Among the most quickly implemented methods are telephone surveys and interviews with visitors to large stores. Much more time is required for the implementation of personal interviews, surveys by mail.

Lack of sufficient funds also influences the choice of data collection method. For example, if a researcher wants a sample of 1,000 respondents and $5,000 is allotted for these studies, then it seems impossible to hire interviewers at $20 per interview, because in this case the interviewers would have to pay $20,000. In this example, you will have to use cheaper methods, such as a telephone interview.

The quality of the collected data is assessed by many parameters, which will be discussed in sufficient detail in subsequent sections of the book. Here, only two aspects of the concept of “quality of collected data” will be noted: the ability to extend the conclusions obtained from the collection of information for a certain sample to the entire population as a whole and the completeness of the information received from each respondent. These criteria, for example, are met to a much greater extent by information obtained from a face-to-face meeting between an interviewer and a respondent than from telephone interviews.

At least four characteristics of the target group of respondents should be considered influencing the choice of data collection method:

1. The coverage rate (incidence rate) characterizes the percentage of respondents with the required characteristics in the total population of respondents. For example, if the concept of low calorie microwaved food is being tested, the target respondents should be housewives who own microwave ovens and have purchased low calorie foods in the past six months. Only about 5% of housewives who meet these requirements meet this qualification. The coverage rate in this case means that only one out of twenty housewives randomly interviewed meets the objectives of the survey.

The data collection process in this example, accompanied by a high investment of money and time in finding respondents with the required characteristics, may be more time and money consuming than the interview itself. Perhaps a mail-in survey should be used, using the principle of self-selection, according to which only respondents who meet the qualifications given in the questionnaire answer the questions.

2. Willingness to participate in the survey. The researcher is always concerned about the high degree of refusal of respondents to participate in the survey. There are two types of reasons for not wanting to take part in any survey. The first is due to some generalized feelings of suspicion and the desire not to let anyone into their personal lives: a certain category of people simply does not want to take part in any survey. The second is due to the specific circumstances of a particular survey. For example, some respondents are reluctant to discuss certain topics. The survey method chosen affects the degree of willingness to participate in the survey. So people find it more difficult to refuse to participate in a personal interview than in a mail survey. Usually, various methods are used to stimulate the desire to take part in the survey: cash payment, small gifts (pens, lighters, etc.), etc.

3. Opportunity to participate in the survey. Even if a potential respondent satisfies the above two requirements, for one reason or another, he may not take part in the survey (business trip, illness, unexpected family circumstances, forgetfulness, etc.). Usually personal contacts with potential respondents increase the likelihood of their participation in the survey, while surveys by mail do not have such a stimulating social impact.

4. Respondent diversity characterizes the degree to which prospective respondents share certain key traits. For example, if only a small part of the target population visits large department stores, then a survey of shoppers in such stores will not provide representative results. The more diverse the target group, the more personal approach researchers must use to ensure that the right respondents participate in the survey.

The choice of data collection methods is largely determined by the nature of the questions. Here, first of all, it is necessary to highlight the level of complexity of the tasks that are set for the respondents. For example, testing the palatability of a certain food product or testing a television advertisement requires quite complex preparation, special equipment, separate premises and clear control over the procedures for their implementation.

Further, it should be noted that the amount of information requested from respondents varies greatly from one survey to another. For example, one study aims to obtain a variety of information about the product and its brand, about the lifestyle of buyers and their demographic characteristics.

While the other is only trying to find out what the store visitor remembered from the advertisement at the entrance to this store.

Traditionally, telephone surveys are the shortest, while face-to-face interviews are quite lengthy.

All other methods of data collection fall in between. Often, several methods of data collection are used in combination. For example, after a short telephone interview, a postal survey is conducted.

The choice of data collection method is significantly influenced by the degree of sensitivity of the topic being studied, that is, the degree of involvement of personal interests, views, moral and ethical aspects (blood donation, racial problems, personal hygiene, donations for charitable purposes, etc.). The experience of studying these problems suggests that personal interviews are the least suitable here, and telephone interviews or interviews using a computer are most often used.

The choice of the appropriate method should be based on taking into account all of these factors at the same time, which is extremely difficult and sometimes gives conflicting results. The final choice largely depends on the qualifications and experience of the researchers, the depth of their knowledge of individual methods of data collection. IN general plan when choosing a survey method, one should be guided by the answers to the following question: “Which method of data collection will provide the most complete representative information within the allotted time and money?”

Questions to check

1. Define quantitative and qualitative marketing research; indicate how they differ from each other?
2. What is the method of observation? What is observed and what is recorded in the process of its implementation?
3. Describe at least three different uses for the focus group method.
4. How is the composition of the focus group formed?
5. Should focus group members be similar or different, and why?
6. Should the CMO act as facilitator during the focus group?
7. What does the definition "projective" mean in the name "projection method"?
8. The head of the marketing department of the winery is concerned about the low level of consumption of liqueurs compared to another alcoholic products factory. Help him choose two projection methods for investigating this problem and justify the possibility of their application in this case.
9. Outline the main advantages and disadvantages of survey methods compared to qualitative methods.
10. What are the most attractive features of the computer-assisted survey method?
11. What is common and what is the difference between home, shop and office interviews?
12. Why are phone surveys so popular?
13. What are the three resource factors that influence the choice of survey method?
14. The burglar alarm manufacturer chooses the method of asking apartment owners about the proposed alarm system. In the event of a thief entering the apartment, an audible signal is activated and the barking of a guard dog is imitated. The firm would like to know how many potential clients have information about the existence of this system, what they think about it and whether they are going to buy it next year. Which of the considered survey methods is most suitable in this case and why?

Literature

1. Burns Alvin C., Bush Ronald F. Marketing Research. New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1995.

2. Hague Paul, Jackson Peter. Marketing Research in Practice. 1992.

3. Kotler Philip. Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and Control. Seventh Ed. Prentice Hall, 1991.

When studying political processes, the entire methodological arsenal of sociological science is used to collect information: document analysis, observation, polling, experiment, sociometric methods. They are described in detail in the sociological literature, therefore we won't stop at their detailed consideration, but we will try to understand in what cases this or that method is most adequate for the purposes of studying political processes.

Questionnaires and interviews - the most common tool collection of information in the study of electoral behavior, public opinion or value orientations. Research of this kind is often referred to as probing public opinion. The main principle of using survey methods is the use of a sample model, based on the analysis of which it is possible to draw conclusions about the prevailing moods of the entire population.

These methods became widespread in the 1930s. thanks to the activities of J. Gallup . According to experts, his study in 1932 was, in fact, the first example of scientific political analysis using the results of a survey in history. Then J. Gallup predicted the victory of his mother-in-law Ola Babcock Miller in the struggle for elections to the administration of the state of Iowa. J. Gallup attracted increased attention of the press and the public in 1936, when 5 months before the US presidential election predicted the victory of F. Roosevelt, as opposed to the forecast of the Literary Digest magazine. A little-known analyst criticized the popular publication for the incorrect procedure for selecting respondents. Further developments fully confirmed the forecast of J. Gallup, made by him on the basis of his own selective study, during which only 3,000 postcards were sent out. This success and the whole plot of events around the elections made J. Gallup a figure of national scale. His name became famous in every house, and successful prediction of the outcome presidential elections, proved the advantage of a new approach to the study of electoral behavior. And this, in turn, became the starting point for a radical revision of the practice of conducting sociological surveys of the population that existed at that time.

Pre-election sounding, in addition to solving such a practical problem as preparing a forecast for the upcoming elections based on measuring the moods of respondents, provides valuable material for the scientific analysis of factors influencing the formation of electoral behavior of voters. It is carried out by studying the relationship between the sociological and psychological characteristics of voters and their actual behavior when choosing a particular candidate or party.

Sociological surveys are also widely used to study other aspects of the political process, such as the characteristics of political culture, the legitimacy of the political system and its individual institutions, the attitude of the population to the current political course, etc.

In modern practice, such a type of survey is often used as interviewing. This method, like others, has its advantages and disadvantages. According to J. Mannheim and R. Rich, “a face-to-face interview is at the same time one of the worst and one of the best methods of collecting information available to the researcher" 30 .

The benefits of interviewing are obvious. In a questionnaire survey, the researcher distributes or sends out forms to respondents with a request to answer the questions posed. However, he cannot be sure that they will all be filled in correctly, and there is no guarantee that they will return filled at all. In face-to-face interviews, the situation is different. The interviewer, according to the respondent, fills out the interview forms himself. Thus , firstly, it excludes the possibility of transferring the questionnaire to be filled out to another person who will violate the sample , secondly, the interviewer controls the situation, which allows avoiding the influence of third parties on the answers of the respondent, thirdly, if necessary, the interviewer can correctly bring the questions of the questionnaire closer to the capabilities of the respondent.

The most significant drawback of this method is related to the fact that in an interview situation circumstances arise that provoke the respondent to reactions that may interfere with the communication process. Irritation of the respondent can be caused by the appearance or manner the behavior of the interviewer, the wording of the questions, or the very environment in which the interview is conducted ... And as a result, there is a high probability of information “hindrances” that are related not only real world how much to the polling process itself.

Depending on the goals and objectives of the study, the interview strategy may vary in the degree of formalization: from standard selective interviewing to directed and specialized.

When conducting standard sample interview respondents are considered as representatives of the general population. Communication between the interviewer and the respondent is strictly regulated by a detailed questionnaire and deviation from it is not allowed. The purpose of such a survey is to obtain information that can be used to quantitatively compare the answers of respondents, which will allow further generalization of the answers for the general population as a whole.

At directed (focused) interview the respondent requires a special approach to the extent that the unique information at his disposal suggests. With a directed interview, most often there is no pre-designed rigid questionnaire, but there is only a general plan of the conversation, on which the interviewer relies. A directed interview is conducted in cases where, in order to solve a research problem, it is necessary to get answers to questions from a certain circle or type of people. It is able to provide the researcher with information that is most essential for understanding nature or meaning of some phenomenon, and which cannot be obtained in any other way. In a directed interview, the survey involves not randomly selected respondents, but representatives of special groups - elites. For example, a researcher has the right to build hypotheses about the motives, logic and significance of making a particular political decision, but the true picture can be seen only by finding out the opinion of the participants in this process themselves. However, when using guided interviews, it should be borne in mind that there is a danger of receiving false information, since each source is inevitably subjective. Vanity, the desire to hide personal or corporate interest in the development of events in a certain direction, distrust of the interviewer, etc. - all this can affect the nature of the information received. Therefore, it must be remembered that information coming from people who know the situation from the inside cannot replace a sober theoretical understanding of this subject by superimposing their own analytical and conceptual data on those collected during the survey.

In some types of research, scientists need information that is not obtained from unique respondents, and not from respondents representing the general population, but from typical representatives of some fairly narrow group. This makes it necessary to specialized interview. Interview children, illiterate adults, prisoners, slum vagabonds, the mentally ill, immigrant workers, etc. are all examples of specialized interviews. Such a survey differs from a selective whole in a number of ways. First, in a specialized survey, it happens that the researcher and the respondent speak different languages. Secondly, the researcher has no right to expect the respondent to be able to read, reason, or follow the development of someone else's argument. Under such conditions, communication can be very difficult, and the reliability of answers may decrease. Therefore, this type of survey involves a preliminary gradual establishment of contact with respondents.

An example of the need to establish such contact is a survey of schoolchildren on the problems of the country's political development. Here the researcher must explain to the respondents the basic concepts of the topic, and only then proceed to the survey itself. In addition to the basic questions, follow-up answers should also be asked to ensure that understanding is achieved. Such an interview can be a very rich source of information for the researcher. However, to be effective, it requires almost artistic skills from the researcher.

Content analysis method focused on conducting objective, measurable and verifiable research into the content of political messages. This method assumes that, based on knowledge of the content of messages, the researcher can draw conclusions about the intentions of the communicator or the possible effects of the message. Thus, it is assumed that the meaning of the message can be relatively easily retrieved from itself. The main premise of this method is that the quantitative characteristics of the text are its important parameters, allowing one to draw certain conclusions. It is significant that within the framework of content analysis, no differences are made in terms of the degree of significance between the units under study - the focus is only on the frequency of their occurrence.

In politics, the content analysis method is widely used in the study of electoral behavior. organized groups such as political parties. The source of information can be both official documents (publications, minutes of meetings of committees, meetings, etc.) and personal (diaries, letters). In addition, this method allows you to analyze the activities of an individual politician, for example, by studying his public speeches.

The method of content analysis is widely used in the study of political communication materials. This method allows you to determine the degree of compliance of the message with the intentions of the communicator and the specifics of the channel, to study the relationship between the characteristics of the message and the attitudes of the audience, as well as its real and communicative behavior. Using this method, you can answer, for example, the following questions. What qualities of the candidate were most often mentioned in the materials published in a particular publication? What is the overall image of the parties involved in a political conflict in the programs of one or another TV channel? What are the differences in the coverage of the strike movement in the materials of central and regional publications, etc.?

Laboratory experiments have limited application in the social sciences, where it is rather difficult to build experimental models by separating the process or phenomenon under study from external influences. Scientists who study political processes usually do not have the opportunity to conduct rigorous scientific experiments, and for the most part are forced to abandon the use of this method. However, in some cases, it is possible to include an experimental element in the research process using the following methods:

a variation of the questionnaire itself;

playback different scenarios development of an event or process;

testing reactions to political propaganda;

manipulation of information by increasing its availability to small groups of residents.

Striking examples of the use of this method in the study of political processes are studies of the impact of media materials on the audience.

IN domestic practice The first experimental test of the hypothesis about the influence of media messages on the mass political consciousness and electoral behavior of Russians was a study carried out in November-December 1999 by the ZIRCON research group. As part of this project a series of socio-psychological experiments was carried out in Tomsk, Voronezh and Salekhard. The situation of information influence was modeled in such a way that three special groups of respondents (25-27 people each) were recruited in each city. Participants in the first group made a commitment to watch a specific TV program or read a specified newspaper every day during the experiment. The participants of the second group pledged to stop watching (or reading) for the entire duration of the project. The third group was the control group: no obligations were imposed on its participants. Thus, within the framework of the study, the situation of the maximum possible and minimum possible consumption of information broadcast by specific media was modeled. To find out how the political preferences of the participants in the experiment changed, three control polls were conducted during the study. The prerequisite for the study was the desire to directly test the validity of the widely held belief that the media "push" citizens to vote for certain candidates. We will not dwell on the description of the conclusions obtained. We only note that the results of the experiment confirmed the influence of media materials on voters' preferences, as well as the ability of the media to induce them to vote for individual candidates. At the same time, the effect of influence at the level of deeper relations and thoughts of the voter was not recorded 31 .

4. Methods of data analysis.

Data collection and analysis is a kind of dialogue between at world of people, institutions, processes and researchers. The prerequisites for choosing one or another method of analysis are the nature of the data themselves, the theoretical approach within which the researcher works when collecting them (“statistical” or “humanitarian”).

In a somewhat simplified form, these two approaches can be represented as follows.

Statistical approach.

Within the framework of this approach, the researcher proceeds from the premise that mass phenomena are of a statistical nature, i.e. if we study a sufficiently large number of manifestations of the studied social phenomenon, then the phenomenon itself will be known. The individual in this case acts as a representative of a certain community, a carrier of information about a social phenomenon. Individuals are interchangeable and their individual characteristics as such are of little interest.

Here it is necessary to make a distinction between primary and secondary data. The primary type of data refers to those that were obtained directly by the researcher, while the secondary data are the result of processing data from studies made in the past. The most important argument against the use of secondary data is that they limit the freedom and possibilities of the scientist, since they were obtained for the purposes of another study. Indeed, it is very difficult for a researcher working with secondary data to go beyond the system that was designed before him, and for which these data were collected and processed. However, sometimes secondary data have significant advantages over primary data: accessibility and low price. In some cases, the researcher may have no other alternative than to use just secondary data. For example, we cannot develop a questionnaire in relation to the Caribbean crisis and go with it to 1962, directly observe the collision of the Prague Spring of 1968, and record the lively reaction of contemporaries of these events. However we can analyze data from past years. In these cases, the main source of secondary data for us will be the reports of government statistics, the results of public opinion polls, for example, data from the Gallup service in the USA, Eurobarometer in Europe, VTsIOM in Russia, etc. Even newspaper publications can act as a source of such information.

Having decided what type of data - primary or secondary - will be used in the study, and having collected these data, the scientist can proceed directly to the analysis process. Analyzing the data obtained, the researcher tries to answer the questions “What is it?”, “Why is this happening?”, “How much of it?” etc. To get answers to these and other questions, it is necessary to build a certain model that will display the relationships and relationships between the studied phenomena, processes and objects. Let us consider further what kind of models can be built for the study of political processes.

One-dimensional model. This is the simplest single variable model. The purpose of its construction is to obtain an answer to the relatively simple questions "How much?" So what is this?". For example , How many voters voted for this party? What is the electorate of a particular candidate? The answers to these questions give a one-dimensional distribution of feature values. To study such a variable as electoral choice, it is enough to count the number of people who voted for a particular party or candidate and present these values ​​as a percentage distribution. The same applies to variables measured on nominal scales (“Which religion do you belong to?”, “Specify your profession”, etc.). Usually, if we measure a variable on a quantitative or interval scale, knowledge of the one-dimensional distribution of attribute values ​​is not enough, especially since there are incomparably more analysis possibilities for such variables than for nominal ones. Researchers are interested some measures, which in the language of mathematical statistics are called measures of central tendencies . These include the average or typical value of a trait, as well as measures of the spread of trait values ​​around their average value. For example, an analysis of income may include calculating the average income and the percentage of people who have incomes above and below the average.

binary model. The essence of this model is the assumption that two variables A and B are related. Thus, several models can be built: A is the cause of B, B is the cause of A, A and B mutually influence each other, A and B are influenced by a third variable. In all these cases, the following methods of analysis are used: a table of mutual contingency of features, correlation analysis.

Table of mutual contingency of signs is constructed to study the relationships between variables.

Table. Electorates of electoral associations following the results of elections to the Duma in 1999 (%) 32

This table, for example, establishes a link between age and voting for parties in elections in State Duma in 1999. The table is constructed in such a way that it is possible to trace the difference in the age structure of the electorate of different parties.

At first glance, the following trend is obvious: younger voters are more likely than representatives of other age groups to vote for democratic parties, while older voters vote for left-wing parties. However, such a conclusion can't serve direct statistical confirmation of the hypotheses put forward by the researcher. These guesses are crude at best. In more complex situations, such an analysis is often unreliable. To establish the degree of correspondence of the hypothesis with the data, such a statistical method as correlation analysis, aimed at measuring and studying the relationship between two variables, helps.

Methods of correlation analysis allow answering very important questions that arise in the study of relationships between variables. For example, do changes in the values ​​of one variable (the independent variable) affect, and if so, to what extent, changes in the values ​​of the other (the dependent variable)? What is the form and direction of the identified connection? Is the identified relationship characteristic of the entire population, and not just the sample?

As a result, several explanatory schemes can be constructed.

For example, when analyzing relationship between age and party choice, it is reasonable to assume that age may influence party choice, while party choice cannot affect age. The connection fixed in this model is called one-way.

The researcher cannot reliably establish whether the choice of newspaper influenced the formation of party preferences or already established party preferences forced people to choose certain newspapers.

It is also possible that two variables are influenced by a third, unknown variable. However, this connection is already beyond the scope of binary analysis and becomes the subject of multiple analysis.

Multiple analysis. When three or more variables are included in the system, the researcher can enrich analysis by building such models as regression, interactive, path and multifactorial.

The basic premise of a regression model is that two or more variables, called "independent" variables, have an additive effect on the "dependent" variable. Moreover, the regression model allows you to separate the influence of each independent variable from each other and determine the strength of this influence. Let's say we want to know which variables affect the choice of a batch. To do this, it is necessary to build a model that includes a number of independent variables. For example, the choice of party may be influenced by belonging to social group and religion.

Thus, when building this model, you can operate with the following regression equation:

Party Choice = Social Group + Religion.

However, the indicators "social group" and "religion" may be influenced by another variable, such as age. Then the researcher needs to turn to the control procedure or interactive model, which includes a whole chain of interactions: age interacts with belonging to a social group and religion in their influence on the choice of party. In the 60s. Butler and Stokes, for example, showed that in the younger age cohorts belonging to a social group is more significant than in other age categories, and religion - in older ones.

Data of this kind can be analyzed by adding a control procedure to the standard regression model.

The regression model can be useful for testing various research hypotheses, but in practice it often does not reflect the entire complexity of the objective world, the entire chain of causes and relationships. In this case, models are used path analysis, or path analysis, which builds a chain of direct and indirect effects of one variable on another. Consider as an example psychological identification with the party and approval of its policies. Obviously, the approval of the policy of the party increases the overall party identification, but the opposite case is also quite possible. For most people (here we mean the situation characteristic of developed liberal democracies), adherence to the party is formed long before they understand and realize its political platform. Thus, there is a certain flow of opposite interactions, the direction of which can be difficult to determine. However, this can be done with the help of path analysis, empirically building a chain of causality.

Another method used in multiple analysis is multivariate analysis. The essence of multivariate analysis is to answer the question of whether a system of interrelated variables is dependent on two (or more than two) underlying hidden factors. Hence , the purpose of multivariate analysis is to discover hidden factors. Traditionally, political studies highlight several hidden factors, or, as they are also called, splits that underlie many phenomena and processes, for example, a split into "left" and "right" in relation to political settings, as well as contradictions structured along the axes " hard-soft" and "liberal-authoritarian".

Using multivariate analysis, we can build the following model:

The constructed model identifies only two factors and, accordingly, two groups of variables that are directly affected by them. In a real situation, of course, the existence of a larger number of significant factors is possible. Inclusion or exclusion of variables from subgroups must be done based on the so-called factor weight, i.e. its influence on a certain group of variables.

Time series analysis. Many social and political processes and events do not happen once, but are repeated. The course of many political processes can be stretched out for years, decades and even centuries. Studies that study such processes and events are called trend or panel studies. The main method in this case is the analysis of time series. Time series is a set of observations in which the same variable is measured repeatedly at certain intervals. In political research, time series analysis is most often used to predict support for parties (especially government ones). At the same time, researchers proceed from a combination of various factors, for example, economic conditions (unemployment, inflation, living standards, etc.) and crisis events (armed conflicts, strikes, government and parliamentary crises, etc.).

A model that meets the goals of time series analysis is as follows:

The main method used in the analysis of time series is the construction of a regression equation, where indicators measured at different time periods act as independent variables.

All the methods and analyzes described above, related to the so-called statistical paradigm, have become widespread in the study of political processes due to two major developments that have revolutionized the study of political processes. The first relates to conducting sampling studies to predict the outcome of US elections. Starting from 1824 and until 1936, research was carried out in line with a certain tradition, when a sufficiently large number of respondents participated in the surveys. J. Gallup broke this tradition. The result was, firstly, the breaking of the monopoly governments on quantitative information and, secondly, a sharp reduction in the costs of collecting initial political data. From now on, statistics have ceased to be "official". The second achievement refers to the 50s, when it became possible to use computer technology for statistical data analysis.

These changes affected, first of all, research related to the study of the behavior, attitudes and opinions of citizens. As a result of the changes that have taken place, there has been a significant expansion of the object and subject of political research. If earlier scientists studied mainly political institutions and the highest political elite using relatively primitive quantitative methods, now, thanks to the use of new technologies for collecting and analyzing data, political science has been enriched by studies of the mass political behavior of citizens and the middle-level elite 33 .

humanitarian approach.

Proponents of this approach believe that with the help of rigidly formalized methods of analysis it is impossible to look into the depth of phenomena and processes. The individual is unique. He is not a manifestation of the phenomenon, but the phenomenon itself. Political actors are seen as conscious beings who shape the political world just as it shapes them. Therefore, the most adequate for the study of political processes are the so-called qualitative methods, using which the researcher is looking for answers to the questions “What is it? Why is this? Where does it come from? What are the reasons for this?

The separation of statistical and humanitarian approaches is based on the existence in the scientific world of two points of view regarding the study of reality - positivism and relativism. The use of quantitative methods is based on positivist traditions. These traditions involve the study of political processes on the basis of empirical observation and testable theory. That is why positivists pay so much attention to the operationalization of theoretical concepts, i.e. translation of theoretical concepts into observable and measurable indicators.

Critics of positivism argue that external reality does not exist. There is only a socially constructed reality in which conscious individuals themselves interpret their behavior and the behavior of others, endow their actions with subjective meanings. In this process, people are not passive elements, but act as active actors in assessing the meaning of their own and others' actions. They shape the world just as it shapes them. This means that the explanation of the world in general and political processes in particular must proceed from the description and understanding of people as conscious and social actors. Their motivation, experience and subjective interpretations- important components of the causal chain of events. The tasks of such an analysis are solved using qualitative methods.

Qualitative methods is the general name for a wide range of information gathering and analysis techniques, such as participant observation (overt and covert), intensive interviewing (in-depth individual and group interviews), etc.

Qualitative methods play a large, though not always recognized, role in the study of political processes. These methods are applicable in cases where the purpose of the study is to study the subjective experience of people and the meanings that they put into their actions. Intensive interviewing, for example, allows people to freely express their opinions in the language in which they are accustomed to communicate on a daily basis, to offer their own interpretations of events. The free flow of communication allows you to understand the logic of the arguments and the chain of associations that led the participants to a certain type of behavior. The explanation of events involves understanding and interpretation, and not a description of the general laws of mass behavior. Finally, qualitative methods draw some attention to the contextual aspects of events by placing respondents' attitudes and behaviors in the context of their individual biography and wider social environment. Thus, qualitative methods draw attention to the meanings, process and context of the course of events.

Traditionally, qualitative methods are used in the study of the process of involvement in politics, ways of forming elites, hierarchical structure, power relations, meanings and plot of the political process. Intensive interviews, for example, were conducted with pressure group activists to study political communities (Grant and Marsh, Mills, Smith). The internal politics of the parties were also studied by interviewing party functionaries. and members of representative bodies of power (Sade, Whiteley). Qualitative methods are quite widely used in the study of municipal government policy in Britain. (Dearlov, Giford, Lowndes and Stoker) and USA (Jones and Batchelor, Stone). To a lesser extent, qualitative methods are used in studies concerning the central government, the reason for which, most likely, is the greater closeness of "high" politics.

An area in which qualitative methods are practically absent is the field of electoral research. Here, the main method of obtaining information is national sample surveys, supplemented more recently by panel surveys conducted after elections. However, qualitative methods began to penetrate into this area, the use of which is supported by the argument that electoral studies based on the use of quantitative methods do not enrich our knowledge with an understanding of the motives and factors of political behavior.

Statistical and humanitarian approaches are often oppose each other. Adherents of qualitative methods criticize the supporters of the statistical approach, putting forward a whole range of comments, claims and even accusations. Researchers who favor quantitative methods are blamed for placing too much emphasis on statistical procedures. At the same time, supposedly, the understanding of the essence of the studied phenomena and processes, the causal chain of events remains aside.

It is also argued that proponents of quantitative methods misunderstand the subject of their research. An elementary error in sample design can lead to collection errors and distortion of conclusions. For example, public opinion researchers in Russia often refer only to European Russians. Government or so-called official statistics, which researchers rely on, can distort the real situation. Respondents may lie to hide their embarrassment, not to express socially disapproved opinion or judgment.

Proponents of quantitative methods are also reproached for focusing too narrowly on the subject of research, they compare these methods with a bright lantern that illuminates only an insignificant part of reality on a dark night. This argument is illustrated, in particular, questionnaires with a fixed fan of possible answers, which, according to critics, can significantly limit the respondents' right to express their own opinion. Consequently, with "rigid", formalized surveys, it is impossible to penetrate into the subtle matter of the motives and meanings of the behavior and actions of the respondents.

In turn, qualitative methods are also criticized, of course, by adherents of quantitative methods. It is proposed to accept the following as initial and true statements. Quantitative Methods are representative and verifiable. Statistical analysis turns research findings into something beyond question. Results from a single study can be generalized to large populations of phenomena with a high degree of certainty. Finally, quantitative studies provide "hard" scientific evidence. At the same time, it is believed that qualitative methods have serious shortcomings, among which the following are noted. First, the non-representativeness of the sample formed for the study. Secondly, the possibility of distorting the opinion of the interviewee due to close contact with the interviewer. Thirdly, the complexity of the analysis and interpretation of the information received, arising from the subjective nature of the data themselves. Fourthly, the impossibility of creating a generalizing theory based on the collected data. Accordingly, qualitative research is atypical. The conclusions obtained from their use are considered partial and supported only by impressions. In general, the work in this direction cannot be classified as strictly scientific.

There can be no winner in this dispute. It should be recognized that both qualitative and quantitative methods have their limitations. Therefore, the most important conclusion arising from the consideration of the two concepts is that the choice of approaches or the balance of their combination should be determined by the goals of research, research tasks, research situation. This means that the following must be kept in mind. Since the statistical and humanitarian approaches involve the use of different methods of collecting and interpreting information, they must be applied to different types initial data, and the correct final result can be obtained only with the correct formulation of the problem.

Neither the supporters of quantitative methods, nor their opponents from the camp of adherents of humanitarian approaches have a monopoly on the truth. It would be a gross mistake to make any approach that claims to be universal an absolute. The world is too complex and multidimensional to be known using only one, even a very subtle and perfect tool, and the skill of a researcher lies in mastering and in the ability to creatively apply all the tools developed by the scientific community.

Questions for self-control:

What are the main general scientific methods used to analyze the sociological aspects of political processes?

What information gathering methods are used in the analysis of political processes?

What is the difference between statistical and humanitarian approaches to data analysis?

What methods of analysis are used in binary models of the interaction of the studied phenomena and processes?

What are the disadvantages statistical methods analysis?

What are the features of the application analysis methods used in the humanitarian approach?

Literature for self-study.

Vyatr E. Sociology political relations. - M, 1979.

Mannheim J.B., Rich R.K. Political science. Research methods. - M., 1997.

Political sociology. Ed. ???- M., 1993.

Tatarova G.G. Methodology of data analysis in sociology (introduction). Textbook for high schools. - M., 1999.

Data collection methods

Marketing research is the process of searching, collecting, processing data and preparing information for making operational and strategic decisions in the business system.

Accordingly, this definition clearly defines the main stages of any marketing research:

Research concept development

Search and collection of information;

Data processing;

Preparation of the final analytical note (report).

Research types

One of the most time-consuming and costly stages of any marketing research is the search and collection of information on the problem under study. Depending on the sources of information used, studies are divided into:

Cabinet;

Field.

However, in practice, field and desk research complement each other, solving their specific range of issues.

Desk research - search, collection and analysis of already existing secondary information ("desk research"). Secondary information is data previously collected for purposes other than those addressed in currently. The main advantages of working with secondary information are: low cost of work, since there is no need to collect new data; speed of information gathering; the presence of several sources of information; relative reliability of information from independent sources; possibility of preliminary analysis of the problem. The obvious disadvantages of working with secondary information are: general the latter; information is often outdated; the methodology and tools used to collect the data may not be appropriate for the purposes of this study. In this regard, desk research is often supplemented by several parallel expert interviews to increase the validity of information.

Field research - search, collection and processing of data specifically for a specific marketing analysis. Any field research is based on primary information, in other words, on newly obtained data to solve a specific problem under study. The main advantages of primary information: data are collected in strict accordance with the exact objectives of the research task; the data collection methodology is strictly controlled. The main disadvantage of collecting field information is the significant cost of material and labor resources.

Depending on the tools (methods) used for collecting field (primary) information, research can be divided into:

quantitative;

Quality.

Often, the practical implementation of marketing research requires integrated approach- joint use of quantitative and qualitative methods.

Quantitative research is the main tool for obtaining the necessary information for planning and decision-making in the case when the necessary hypotheses regarding consumer behavior have already been formed. Quantitative research methods are always based on clear mathematical and statistical models, which makes it possible, as a result, not to have opinions and assumptions, but to have exact quantitative (numerical) values ​​of the studied indicators. Based on the results of quantitative research, you can calculate the required production volumes, profitability, set the price, product parameters, find unoccupied market niches, and much more. The main merit of quantitative research is that they reduce the risk of making wrong decisions and choosing inaccurate planning parameters. The belief that even without research everything is known about the market often turns into insufficiently thought out and insufficiently effective actions in the market and resembles a trial and error method. Quantitative studies are the most adequate way to quantify:

Market capacity and structure of supply and demand;

Sales volumes of market operators;

Prospects for product development;

The effectiveness of various activities of companies to support and promote the product;

Directions for the development of the product portfolio and its individual components;

The efficiency of the distribution network;

Consumer reactions to possible marketing actions of the manufacturer.

Qualitative research, unlike quantitative research, does not focus on statistical measurements, but is based on the understanding, explanation and interpretation of empirical data and is a source of hypothesis formation and productive ideas. Simply put, they answer not the question "how much?", but the questions "what?" "How?" and why?". Qualitative research makes extensive use of projective and stimulating techniques—unstructured, non-directive ways of asking questions that help the researcher uncover motivations, beliefs, attitudes, attitudes, preferences, values, satisfaction levels, concerns, etc., about products or brands. Projective techniques help to overcome such communication difficulties as the verbalization of feelings, relationships, etc., as well as to identify latent motives, implicit attitudes, repressed feelings, etc. Qualitative research finds the greatest use in studying:

Consumption patterns, purchasing behavior and factors that determine choice;

Relationships with products, brands and companies;

Degrees of satisfaction with existing products;

Buyer's intentions.

Qualitative research plays an important role in the development of new products, where these studies allow:

Understand if there is a niche for a new product in the market under study;

Identify attitudes towards new products (or product concepts).

Use of qualitative research at the stage strategic development brand concept, enabling:

Generation of a set of ideas regarding the concept of brand positioning;

Brand concept evaluations;

Generation of ideas regarding the creative implementation of strategic concepts;

Evaluation of marketing communication elements (name, logo, packaging, TV advertising, etc.)

Another area of ​​application of qualitative methodology is the so-called diagnostic studies. Clearly, consumer perceptions of a product and advertising change over time. Qualitative research in such cases helps to determine the level, direction and nature of changes in brand perception and advertising over time.

In addition, a qualitative methodology can be used when conducting tactical research to select the most successful execution option (execution) of advertising, packaging, logo. For testing, alternative options for visual, textual, and other elements of a specific design of already created advertising, packaging, etc. can be offered.

Information collection methods

Despite great amount a variety of research methods and techniques, the general scheme of activities implemented in the framework of market research is quite simple and understandable. The main sources of marketing information are:

Interviews and surveys;

Registration (observation);

Experiment;

Expert review.

Interview (survey) - finding out the position of people or getting information from them on any issue. A survey is the most common and essential form of data collection in marketing. Approximately 90% of studies use this method. The survey can be oral (personal) or written.

During a written survey, participants receive questionnaires (questionnaires), which they must fill out and return to the destination. Usually, in written surveys, closed questions are used, the answers to which are to choose one of the given ones. Usually, during written surveys, the questionnaire is sent to representatives target audience, by means of e-mail, postal mailing or facsimile communication. The main disadvantage that limits the use of this method is the long period and low percentage (on average 3%) of the return of completed questionnaires.

Personal (Face-to-face) and telephone surveys are called interviews.

Telephone interviews are a relatively cheap method of conducting surveys of any level of precision in terms of sample design (the geographic location of the respondents is not critical in terms of the cost of conducting an interview). This method is applicable only in quantitative studies. However, there are objective disadvantages of using this method:

Not quite complete control of the understanding and sincerity of the respondent;

There is no possibility to present visual materials (samples, cards with answer options);

Unfeasibility of lengthy interviews (on the phone it is difficult to keep the interlocutor's attention for more than 15 minutes);

In cities with an insufficient level of telephony, it is impossible to obtain a representative sample.

Face-to-face interviews can be formalized and non-formalized.

With a formalized interview, there is a specific scheme for conducting a survey (usually a questionnaire containing pre-prepared clear wording of questions and well-thought-out models of answers to them). A formalized interview loses much of its meaning if the respondents' answers are not analyzed in terms of their social and demographic (industry and geographical) characteristics. Therefore, it assumes that the "passport" must be filled in, where the data about each respondent is entered, the need for which is again dictated by the research program. Such interviews are conducted on the street, in shops, at public events, at the place of residence of the respondents (door-to-door surveys), etc. Formalized surveys have received the greatest use in the implementation of quantitative research. The main disadvantages of this method are: relatively high cost and insignificant geographical coverage.

Non-formalized interviews are a specific method of collecting information in which there is only a topic and purpose. There is no specific method for conducting the survey. This makes it possible to identify the underlying motives of the consumer's actions, to study both rational and irrational reasons for his purchasing behavior. In practice, informal interviews are used in qualitative research. Non-formalized interviews are individual and group.

Individual non-formalized interviews are conducted with the respondent one on one in the form of a dialogue, while the respondent has the opportunity to express detailed judgments on the problem under study. It is possible to single out such forms of conducting individual non-formalized interviews as in-depth interviews and hall tests.

In-depth interviews are a series of individual interviews on a given topic, conducted according to a discussion guide. The interview is conducted by a specially trained highly qualified interviewer who is well versed in the topic, owns the technique and psychological methods of conducting a conversation. Each interview lasts 15-30 minutes and is accompanied by the active participation of the respondent - he lays out cards, draws, writes, etc. In-depth interviews, unlike structured interviews used in quantitative surveys, allow you to penetrate deeper into the psychology of the respondent and better understand his point of view, behavior, attitudes, stereotypes, etc. In-depth interviews, although time consuming (compared to focus groups), are very useful in situations where the atmosphere of a group discussion is undesirable. This may be necessary when studying individual problems and situations that are not usually discussed in a wide circle, or when individual points of view may differ sharply from socially approved behavior - for example, when discussing issues of gender relations, sex, certain diseases, hidden political beliefs, etc. .P. In-depth interviews are used in testing and developing initial advertising developments ( creative ideas) when it is required to obtain direct, individual associations, reactions and perceptions - without regard to the group. At the same time, the combination of the method of in-depth interviews and focus groups with the same respondents is optimal. And, finally, in-depth interviews are indispensable when conducting qualitative research, when the characteristics of the target group make it impossible to collect respondents in a focus group - i.e. at one time in one place for 2-3 hours. For example, when it comes to busy businessmen, wealthy citizens, narrow professional groups, etc.

Hall tests are personal semi-formalized interviews in a special room. As a rule, premises are used in libraries, shops, halls of administrative buildings, etc. The respondent and the interviewer sit down at a table, and the interview takes place in a structured conversation mode. The need for a hall test is usually due to one of several reasons:

Testing bulky samples that are inconvenient to carry around the apartment or there is no certainty that the apartment will be able to conduct an interview under normal conditions;

Testing is limited to the number of samples;

The use of special equipment (for example, TV-video) for demonstration of the tested material;

The interview is conducted in crowded places of potential respondents, but it is difficult and not suitable for talking "on your feet".

Hall tests formally refer to quantitative methods for obtaining information. With qualitative methods, the hall test is related by the fact that information is obtained on a relatively small directed sample (from 100 to 400 people), as well as the fact that the respondent is asked to comment (explain) his behavior. To conduct a hall test, representatives of the target group (potential consumers) are invited to a room ("hall") equipped for tasting goods and / or viewing advertising, where they are given the opportunity to demonstrate their reaction to the tested material and explain the reason for their choice. In the course of answering the questions of the questionnaire, the selection criteria, frequency and volume of consumption of brands of the studied product group are determined. The method is used to evaluate the consumer properties of a new product: taste, smell, appearance and so on. The method is also used when testing brand elements, packaging, audio and video clips, advertising messages (recognizability of an advertising message, memorability, reliability, persuasiveness, understanding of the primary and secondary ideas of advertising, slogan, etc.), etc.).

Group non-formalized interview (focused interview, focus - group) - is a group discussion of issues of interest to representatives of the target audience. The "focus" in such a group is on the subjective experience of people who give their understanding and explanation of a given topic, including all its nuances. The course of the conversation is controlled by the moderator according to a pre-developed plan and is recorded on videotape. As a rule, during the discussion, various projective techniques are used to find out the "real" attitude of consumers to the subject under study, obtaining much deeper and more detailed information than at the level of "ordinary" communication. Usually people do not think specifically about the issues that are discussed in the group, or do not have the opportunity to compare their opinions with the opinions of other people. During the focus group, respondents are asked not only to rate something according to the “like or dislike” principle, but also to explain their point of view. And the subsequent qualified analysis of the results obtained allows us to understand the psychological mechanisms of the formation of one or another opinion of the group members. The main disadvantage of this method is the biased nature of the results. In other words, the results of focused interviews cannot be expressed in numerical terms, for further extrapolation to the general population of research objects. Therefore, in practice, the focus group technique is used in combination with quantitative research methods.

Observation (registration) is a form of marketing research, with the help of which a systematic, systematic study of the behavior of an object or subject is carried out. Observation, unlike polling, does not depend on the readiness of the observed object to report information. Observation is the process of collecting and recording events or special moments associated with the behavior of the object being studied, open or hidden from the observed. The subject of observations can be the properties and behavior of individuals; movement of things, goods, etc. The disadvantage of observations is the impossibility of revealing the opinions, ideas, knowledge of people. Therefore, in practice, observations are usually used in conjunction with other research methods.

An experiment is a study of the influence of one factor on another while controlling for extraneous factors. Experiments are divided into laboratory, taking place in an artificial environment (product test), and field, taking place in real conditions (market test). The main disadvantages of this method are the significant cost and duration, which significantly limits the use of this method in practical research.

A panel is a repeated collection of data from one group of respondents at regular intervals. Thus, the panel is a kind of continuous sampling. It allows you to fix changes in the observed values, characteristics. A panel survey is used to study the opinions of consumers of a certain group over a certain period of time, when their needs, habits, tastes, complaints are determined. The disadvantages of using panels are: the "mortality" of the panel, which manifests itself in the gradual refusal of participants to cooperate or the transition to another consumer category, and the "panel effect", which consists in the conscious or unconscious change in the behavior of participants under long-term control.

Expert assessment is an assessment of the processes under study qualified specialists- experts. Such an assessment is especially necessary when it is impossible to obtain unmediated information about any process or phenomenon. In practice, for expert assessments most often used delphi method, brainstorming method and synectics method.

The Delphi method is a form of polling experts, in which their anonymous answers are collected over several rounds and, through familiarization with the intermediate results, they receive a group assessment of the process under study.

The brainstorming method consists in the uncontrolled generation and spontaneous interweaving of ideas by participants in a group discussion of a problem. On this basis, chains of associations arise that can lead to an unexpected solution to the problem.

Synectics is considered a method with high creativity. The idea of ​​the method lies in the gradual alienation of the original problem by building analogies with other areas of knowledge. After multistage analogies, a quick return to the original problem is made.