Creator of the world's first nuclear power plant. Launch of the world's first nuclear power plant

Nuclear power plant (NPP)

power plant in which atomic (nuclear) energy is converted into electrical energy. The power generator at a nuclear power plant is a nuclear reactor (see. Nuclear reactor). The heat that is released in the reactor as a result of the chain reaction of fission of the nuclei of some heavy elements is then converted into electricity, just as in conventional thermal power plants. Unlike thermal power plants operating on fossil fuels, nuclear power plants operate on nuclear fuel (See nuclear fuel) (mainly 233 U, 235 U. 239 Pu). When dividing 1 G uranium or plutonium isotopes released 22,500 kW h, which is equivalent to the energy contained in 2800 kg conditional fuel. It has been established that the world's energy resources of nuclear fuel (uranium, plutonium, etc.) significantly exceed the energy resources of natural fossil fuel reserves (oil, coal, natural gas, etc.). This opens up broad prospects for meeting the rapidly growing demand for fuel. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the ever-increasing volume of consumption of coal and oil for technological purposes of the world economy. chemical industry, which is becoming a serious competitor to thermal power plants. Despite the discovery of new deposits of organic fuel and the improvement of methods for its production, there is a tendency in the world to attribute an increase in its cost. This creates the most difficult conditions for countries with limited reserves of fossil fuels. There is an obvious need for the rapid development of nuclear energy, which already occupies a prominent place in the energy balance of a number of industrial countries of the world.

The world's first nuclear power plant for pilot purposes ( rice. 1 ) with a power of 5 MW was launched in the USSR on June 27, 1954 in the city of Obninsk. Prior to this, the energy of the atomic nucleus was used mainly for military purposes. The launch of the first nuclear power plant marked the opening of a new direction in energy, which was recognized at the 1st International Scientific and Technical Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (August 1955, Geneva).

In 1958, the first stage of the Siberian NPP was put into operation with a capacity of 100 MW(full design capacity 600 MW). In the same year, the construction of the Beloyarsk industrial nuclear power plant began, and on April 26, 1964, the generator of the 1st stage (unit with a capacity of 100 MW) gave current to the Sverdlovsk power system, the 2nd unit with a capacity of 200 MW commissioned in October 1967. Distinctive feature Beloyarsk NPP - superheating of steam (until the required parameters are obtained) directly in a nuclear reactor, which made it possible to use conventional modern turbines with almost no modifications.

In September 1964, Unit 1 of the Novovoronezh NPP was put into operation with a capacity of 210 MW Cost price 1 kWh electricity (the most important economic indicator operation of any power plant) at this nuclear power plant systematically decreased: it amounted to 1.24 kopecks. in 1965, 1.22 kopecks. in 1966, 1.18 kop. in 1967, 0.94 kop. in 1968. The first unit of the Novovoronezh NPP was built not only for industrial use, but also as a demonstration facility to show the possibilities and advantages of nuclear energy, the reliability and safety of NPP operation. In November 1965, a nuclear power plant with a pressurized water reactor went into operation in Melekess, Ulyanovsk Region. "boiling" type with a capacity of 50 MW, the reactor is assembled according to a single-circuit scheme, which facilitates the layout of the station. In December 1969, the second unit of the Novovoronezh NPP was put into operation (350 MW).

Abroad, the first nuclear power plant for industrial use with a capacity of 46 MW was put into operation in 1956 at Calder Hall (England). A year later, a nuclear power plant with a capacity of 60 MW in Shippingport (USA).

A schematic diagram of a nuclear power plant with a water-cooled nuclear reactor is shown in rice. 2 . The heat released in the core (See Core) of reactor 1 is taken off by water (coolant (See Coolant)) of the 1st circuit, which is pumped through the reactor by a circulation pump 2. Heated water from the reactor enters the heat exchanger (steam generator) 3, where it transfers the heat received in the reactor to the water of the 2nd circuit. Water from the 2nd circuit evaporates in the steam generator, and the resulting steam enters the turbine 4.

Most often, 4 types of thermal neutron reactors are used at nuclear power plants: 1) water-cooled reactors with ordinary water as a moderator and coolant; 2) graphite-water with water coolant and graphite moderator; 3) heavy water with a water coolant and heavy water as a moderator; 4) graphite-gas with gas coolant and graphite moderator.

The choice of the predominantly used type of reactor is determined mainly by the accumulated experience in reactor construction, as well as the availability of the necessary industrial equipment, raw material reserves, etc. In the USSR, mainly graphite-water and pressurized water reactors are being built. At US nuclear power plants, pressurized water reactors are most widely used. Graphite-gas reactors are used in England. IN nuclear power Canada is dominated by nuclear power plants with heavy water reactors.

Depending on the type and state of aggregation of the coolant, one or another thermodynamic cycle of nuclear power plants is created. The choice of the upper temperature limit of the thermodynamic cycle is determined by the maximum allowable temperature of the claddings of fuel elements containing nuclear fuel, the allowable temperature of the nuclear fuel itself, and also by the properties of the heat transfer medium adopted for a given type of reactor. At nuclear power plants, the thermal reactor of which is cooled by water, low-temperature steam cycles are usually used. Gas-cooled reactors allow the use of relatively more economical steam cycles with increased initial pressure and temperature. The thermal scheme of the NPP in these two cases is performed as a 2-circuit one: the coolant circulates in the 1st circuit, the 2nd circuit is steam-water. In reactors with boiling water or high-temperature gas coolant, a single-loop thermal NPP is possible. In boiling water reactors, water boils in the core, the resulting steam-water mixture is separated, and saturated steam is sent either directly to the turbine or previously returned to the core for overheating ( rice. 3 ). In high-temperature graphite-gas reactors, it is possible to use a conventional gas turbine cycle. The reactor in this case acts as a combustion chamber.

During the operation of the reactor, the concentration of fissile isotopes in nuclear fuel gradually decreases, i.e., the fuel elements burn out. Therefore, over time, they are replaced with fresh ones. Nuclear fuel is reloaded using remote-controlled mechanisms and devices. Spent fuel rods are transferred to the spent fuel pool and then sent for processing.

The reactor and its supporting systems include: the reactor itself with biological protection (See Biological protection), heat exchanger and, pumps or blower units that circulate the coolant; pipelines and fittings of the circulation circuit; devices for reloading nuclear fuel; special systems ventilation, emergency cooling, etc.

Depending on the design, the reactors have distinctive features: in pressurized reactors (See Tank Reactor) the fuel rods and the moderator are located inside the vessel, which carries the full pressure of the coolant; in channel reactors (See Channel Reactor) Fuel elements cooled by a coolant are installed in special pipes-channels penetrating the moderator enclosed in a thin-walled casing. Such reactors are used in the USSR (Siberian, Beloyarsk nuclear power plants, etc.).

To protect NPP personnel from radiation exposure, the reactor is surrounded by biological protection, the main material for which are concrete, water, and serpentine sand. The reactor circuit equipment must be completely sealed. A system is provided for monitoring the places of possible leakage of the coolant, measures are taken so that the appearance of leaks and breaks in the circuit does not lead to radioactive emissions and pollution of the NPP premises and the surrounding area. The reactor circuit equipment is usually installed in sealed boxes, which are separated from the rest of the NPP premises by biological protection and are not serviced during reactor operation. Radioactive air and a small amount of coolant vapors, due to the presence of leaks from the circuit, are removed from the unattended NPP premises by a special ventilation system, in which purification filters and holding gas holders are provided to exclude the possibility of atmospheric pollution. The dosimetric control service monitors the compliance with the radiation safety rules by the NPP personnel.

In case of accidents in the reactor cooling system, in order to prevent overheating and leakage of fuel rod claddings, a rapid (within a few seconds) suppression of the nuclear reaction is provided; emergency system cooling system has independent power sources.

The presence of biological protection, special ventilation and emergency cooling systems and a dosimetric control service allows you to completely secure service staff NPP from harmful effects radioactive exposure.

The equipment of the NPP machine room is similar to the equipment of the TPP machine room. A distinctive feature of most nuclear power plants is the use of steam of relatively low parameters, saturated or slightly superheated.

At the same time, in order to exclude erosion damage to the blades of the last stages of the turbine by particles of moisture contained in the steam, separators are installed in the turbine. Sometimes it is necessary to use remote separators and reheaters of steam. Due to the fact that the coolant and the impurities contained in it are activated when passing through the reactor core, the design of the turbine hall equipment and the cooling system of the turbine condenser of single-loop NPPs should completely exclude the possibility of coolant leakage. At double-circuit NPPs with high steam parameters, such requirements are not imposed on the equipment of the turbine hall.

The specific requirements for the layout of NPP equipment include: the minimum possible length of communications associated with radioactive media, increased rigidity of the foundations and load-bearing structures of the reactor, and reliable organization of ventilation of the premises. On rice. shows a section of the main building of the Beloyarsk NPP with a channel graphite-water reactor. The reactor hall contains: a reactor with biological protection, spare fuel rods and control equipment. The nuclear power plant is arranged according to the block principle reactor - turbine. Turbine generators and systems serving them are located in the engine room. Between the engine and reactor halls are placed auxiliary equipment and station control systems.

The cost-effectiveness of a nuclear power plant is determined by its main technical indicators: the unit power of the reactor, efficiency, the energy intensity of the core, the burnup of nuclear fuel, the utilization factor of the installed power of the nuclear power plant for the year. With the growth of NPP capacity, specific capital investments in it (the cost of the installed kW) decrease more sharply than is the case for TPPs. In that main reason striving for the construction of large nuclear power plants with a large unit capacity of units. For the economy of nuclear power plants, it is typical that the share of the fuel component in the cost of electricity generated is 30-40% (at TPPs 60-70%). Therefore, large nuclear power plants are most common in industrialized areas with limited supplies of conventional fuel, and small-capacity nuclear power plants are most common in hard-to-reach or remote areas, for example, nuclear power plants in the village. Bilibino (Yakut ASSR) with electric power of a typical unit 12 MW Part of the thermal power of the reactor of this NPP (29 MW) is used for heating. In addition to generating electricity, nuclear power plants are also used to desalinate seawater. So, Shevchenko NPP (Kazakh SSR) with an electric power of 150 MW designed for desalination (by distillation) per day up to 150,000 T water from the Caspian Sea.

In most industrialized countries (the USSR, the USA, England, France, Canada, the FRG, Japan, the GDR, etc.), according to forecasts, the capacity of operating and under construction nuclear power plants by 1980 will be increased to tens of Gwt. According to the UN International Atomic Agency, published in 1967, the installed capacity of all nuclear power plants in the world by 1980 will reach 300 Gwt.

The Soviet Union is carrying out an extensive program of commissioning large power units (up to 1,000 MW) with thermal neutron reactors. In 1948-49, work began on fast neutron reactors for industrial nuclear power plants. The physical features of such reactors make it possible to carry out expanded breeding of nuclear fuel (breeding ratio from 1.3 to 1.7), which makes it possible to use not only 235 U, but also raw materials 238 U and 232 Th. In addition, fast neutron reactors do not contain a moderator, are relatively small in size and have a large load. This explains the desire for intensive development of fast reactors in the USSR. For research on fast reactors, experimental and pilot reactors BR-1, BR-2, BR-Z, BR-5, BFS were successively built. The experience gained led to the transition from research of model plants to the design and construction of industrial fast neutron nuclear power plants (BN-350) in Shevchenko and (BN-600) at Beloyarsk NPP. Research is underway on reactors for powerful nuclear power plants, for example, an experimental BOR-60 reactor has been built in the city of Melekess.

Large nuclear power plants are also being built in a number of developing countries (India, Pakistan, and others).

At the 3rd International Scientific and Technical Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (1964, Geneva), it was noted that the widespread development of nuclear energy has become a key problem for most countries. The 7th World Energy Conference (MIREC-VII) held in Moscow in August 1968 confirmed the relevance of the problems of choosing the direction for the development of nuclear energy at the next stage (conditionally 1980-2000), when nuclear power plants become one of the main producers of electricity.

Lit.: Some issues of nuclear energy. Sat. Art., ed. M. A. Styrikovich. Moscow, 1959. Kanaev A. A., Nuclear power plants, L., 1961; Kalafati D. D., Thermodynamic cycles of nuclear power plants, M.-L., 1963; 10 years of the world's first nuclear power plant in the USSR. [Sat. Art.], M., 1964; Soviet atomic science and technology. [Collection], M., 1967; Petrosyants A. M., Atomic energy of our days, M., 1968.

S. P. Kuznetsov.

Big soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what "Nuclear Power Plant" is in other dictionaries:

A power plant in which nuclear (nuclear) energy is converted into electrical energy. The power generator at a nuclear power plant is a nuclear reactor. Synonyms: NPP See also: Nuclear power plants Power plants Nuclear reactors Financial dictionary ... ... Financial vocabulary

- (NPP) a power plant at which nuclear (atomic) energy is converted into electrical energy. At nuclear power plants, the heat released in a nuclear reactor is used to produce water vapor that rotates a turbogenerator. The first nuclear power plant in the world with a capacity of 5 MW was ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

A nuclear power plant is a complex of necessary systems, devices, equipment and structures intended for the production electrical energy. The station uses uranium-235 as fuel. The presence of a nuclear reactor distinguishes nuclear power plants from other power plants.

There are three mutual transformations of forms of energy at nuclear power plants

Nuclear power

goes into heat

Thermal energy

goes into mechanical

mechanical energy

converted to electrical

1. Nuclear energy turns into heat

The basis of the station is the reactor - a structurally allocated volume where nuclear fuel is loaded and where a controlled chain reaction takes place. Uranium-235 is fissile with slow (thermal) neutrons. As a result, it stands out great amount heat.

STEAM GENERATOR

2. Thermal energy is converted into mechanical

Heat is removed from the reactor core by a coolant - a liquid or gaseous substance passing through its volume. This thermal energy used to produce water vapor in a steam generator.

POWER GENERATOR

3. Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy

The mechanical energy of the steam is sent to the turbogenerator, where it is converted into electrical energy and then goes to the consumers through the wires.

What is a nuclear power plant made of?

A nuclear power plant is a complex of buildings that house technological equipment. The main building is the main building where the reactor hall is located. It houses the reactor itself, the spent fuel pool nuclear fuel, refueling machine (for fuel refueling), all this is monitored by operators from the block control panel (BCR).

The main element of the reactor is the active zone (1) . It is located in a concrete shaft. Mandatory components of any reactor are the control and protection system, which allows to carry out the selected mode of the controlled fission chain reaction, as well as the emergency protection system - to quickly stop the reaction in the event of emergency. All this is mounted in the main building.

There is also a second building where the turbine hall (2) is located: steam generators, the turbine itself. Next along the technological chain are capacitors and high-voltage power lines that go beyond the station site.

On the territory there is a building for reloading and storage of spent nuclear fuel in special pools. In addition, the stations are equipped with elements circulation system Cooling towers (3) (concrete tower tapering at the top), cooling pond (natural or artificial) and spray pools.

What are nuclear power plants?

Depending on the type of reactor, nuclear power plants can have 1, 2 or 3 coolant operation circuits. In Russia, bypass NPPs with VVER-type reactors (pressure-cooled power reactor) are most widely used.

NPP WITH 1-LOOP REACTORS

NPP WITH 1-LOOP REACTORS

The single-circuit scheme is used at nuclear power plants with RBMK-1000 type reactors. The reactor operates in a block with two condensing turbines and two generators. In this case, the boiling reactor itself is a steam generator, which makes it possible to use a single-loop scheme. The single-loop scheme is relatively simple, but the radioactivity in this case extends to all elements of the block, which complicates biological protection.

Currently, there are 4 nuclear power plants with single-loop reactors operating in Russia

NPP WITH 2-LOOP REACTORS

NPP WITH 2-LOOP REACTORS

The double-circuit scheme is used at nuclear power plants with water-cooled reactors of the VVER type. Pressurized water is supplied to the reactor core, which is heated. The energy of the coolant is used in the steam generator to form saturated steam. The second circuit is non-radioactive. The unit consists of one 1000 MW condensing turbine or two 500 MW turbines with associated generators.

Currently, Russia has 5 nuclear power plants with double-loop reactors

NPP WITH 3-LOOP REACTORS

NPP WITH 3-LOOP REACTORS

The three-loop scheme is used at nuclear power plants with fast neutron reactors with a sodium coolant of the BN type. To exclude the contact of radioactive sodium with water, a second circuit is constructed with non-radioactive sodium. Thus, the circuit turns out to be three-circuit.

The world's first nuclear power plant

After testing the first atomic bomb, Kurchatov and Dollezhal discussed the possibility of creating a nuclear power plant, focusing on the experience of designing and operating industrial reactors. On May 16, 1949, a corresponding government decree was issued. Despite the apparent simplicity of the transition from one nuclear reactor to another, the matter turned out to be extremely complicated. Industrial reactors operated at low water pressure in the working channels, the water cooled the uranium blocks and that was enough.

The scheme of a nuclear power plant was significantly complicated precisely by the fact that it was necessary to maintain high pressure in the working channels in order to obtain steam of the necessary parameters for the operation of the turbine. More structural materials had to be introduced into the reactor core, which required enrichment of uranium with the 235 isotope. a double-circuit scheme was used, which further complicated the power plant.

The first radioactive circuit included the technological channels of the reactor, pumps for water circulation, the tubular part of the steam generators and the connecting pipelines of the primary circuit. The steam generator is a vessel designed for a significant pressure of water and steam. In the lower part of the vessel, bundles of thin tubes are placed through which water from the primary circuit is pumped with a pressure of about 100 atmospheres and a temperature of 300 degrees. Between the tube bundles there is water of the second circuit, which, taking heat from the tube bundles, heats up and boils. The resulting steam at a pressure of more than 12 atmospheres is sent to the turbine. Thus, the primary circuit water does not mix with the secondary circuit medium in the steam generator and it remains "clean." The steam that has worked out in the turbine is cooled in the turbine condenser and turns into water, which is again pumped to the steam generator by a pump. This maintains the circulation of the coolant in the secondary circuit.

Conventional uranium blocks were not suitable for nuclear power plants. It was necessary to design special technological channels, consisting of a system of thin-walled tubes of small diameter, on the outer surfaces of which nuclear fuel was placed. Technological channels several meters long were loaded into the cells of the graphite stack of the reactor by an overhead crane of the reactor hall and connected to the primary circuit pipelines with removable parts. There were many other differences that complicated the relatively small nuclear plant for the production of electricity.

When the main characteristics of the NPP project were determined, it was reported to Stalin. He highly appreciated the emergence of domestic nuclear energy, scientists received not only approval, but also assistance in the implementation of a new direction.

In February 1950, in the First Main Directorate, headed by B. L., Vannikov and A. P. Zavenyagin, the proposals of scientists were discussed in detail, and on July 29 of the same year, Stalin signed the Decree of the USSR Council of Ministers on the development and construction of a nuclear power plant in the city of Obninsk with a reactor, received the code name "AM." The reactor was designed by N.A. Dollezhal with his team. At the same time, the design of station equipment was carried out by other organizations, as well as the building of the nuclear power plant.

Kurchatov appointed D. I. Blokhintsev as his deputy for the scientific management of the Obninsk NPP; N. A. Nikolaev was appointed the first director of the NPP.

In 1952, scientific and design work for the AM reactor and the NPP as a whole. At the beginning of the year, work began on the underground part of the nuclear power plant, the construction of housing and social and cultural facilities, access roads, and a dam on the Protva River. In 1953, the main volume of construction and installation work: the reactor building and the turbogenerator building were erected, the metal structures of the reactor, steam generators, pipelines, turbines and much more were installed. In 1953, the construction site was given the status of the most important in the Minsredmash (in 1953, PSU was transformed into the Ministry of Medium Machine Building). Kurchatov often came to the construction site, they built him a small wooden house in a nearby forest, where he held meetings with the leaders of the facility.

At the beginning of 1954, the graphite laying of the reactor was carried out. The tightness of the reactor vessel was tested in advance by a sensitive helium method. Helium gas was supplied inside the body under low pressure, and outside all the welded joints were “felt” with a helium leak detector, which detects small helium leaks. During helium tests, unsuccessful design solutions were identified and something had to be redone. After repairing the welded joints and re-checking for tightness, the internal surfaces of the metal structures are carefully dedusted and handed over for laying.

Works on graphite masonry are eagerly awaited by both workers and managers. This is a kind of milestone on the long way of reactor installation. Masonry belongs to the category of clean work and in fact requires sterile cleanliness. Even dust entering the reactor will degrade its quality. Row after row, working graphite blocks are laid, checking the gaps between them and other dimensions. The workers are now unrecognizable, they are all in white overalls and safety shoes, white hats so that the hair does not fall. In the reactor hall, the same sterile cleanliness, nothing superfluous, wet cleaning is almost continuous. The masonry is carried out quickly, around the clock, and after finishing the work, they are handed over to picky controllers. At the end, the hatches into the reactor are closed and sealed. Then they proceed to the installation of technological channels and channels for controlling and protecting the reactor (CPS channels). At the first NPP, they caused a lot of trouble. The fact is that the tubes of the channels had very thin walls, and worked at high pressure and temperature. For the first time, the industry mastered the production and welding of such thin-walled pipes, which caused water leaks through welding leaks. Current channels had to be changed, their manufacturing technology too, all this took time. There were other difficulties, but all obstacles were overcome. Start-up work has begun.

On May 9, 1954, the reactor reached criticality; until June 26, adjustment work was carried out at various power levels at numerous nuclear power plant systems. On June 26, in the presence of I. V. Kurchatov, steam was supplied to the turbine and a further increase in power was carried out. On June 27, the official start-up of the world's first Obninsk nuclear power plant took place with the delivery of electricity to the Mosenergo system.

The nuclear power plant had an output power of 5,000 kilowatts. 128 technological channels and 23 CPS channels were installed in the reactor. One load was enough to operate the nuclear power plant at full capacity for 80-100 days. Obninsk NPP attracted the attention of people all over the world. Numerous delegations from almost all countries visited it. They wanted to see the Russian miracle with their own eyes. No need hard coal, oil or combustible gas, here the heat from the reactor, hidden behind a reliable protection of concrete and cast iron, sets in motion a turbogenerator and generates electricity, which at that time was enough for the needs of a city with a population of 30-40 thousand people, with a nuclear fuel consumption of about 2 tons per year.

Years will pass and on earth in different countries hundreds of nuclear power plants of enormous power will appear, but all of them, like the Volga from a spring, originate on Russian soil not far from Moscow, in the world-famous city of Obninsk, where for the first time an awakened atom pushed the turbine blades and gave electric current under the glorious Russian motto: “Let there be the atom is a worker, not a soldier!”

In 1959, Georgy Nikolaevich Ushakov, who replaced Nikolaev as director of the Obninsk NPP, published a book - "The First Nuclear Power Plant." A whole generation of nuclear scientists studied under this book.

Obninsk NPP, even during the construction and start-up, turned into a wonderful school for the training of construction and installation personnel, scientists and operating personnel. The nuclear power plant performed this role for many decades during industrial operation and numerous experimental works on it. The Obninsk school was attended by such well-known specialists in nuclear energy as: G. Shasharin, A. Grigoryants, Yu. Evdokimov, M. Kolmanovsky, B. Semenov, V. Konochkin, P. Palibin, A. Krasin and many others.

In 1953, at one of the meetings, Minister of the USSR Minsredmash V.A. Malyshev raised the issue of developing nuclear reactor for a powerful icebreaker that the country needed to significantly extend navigation in our northern seas, and then make it year-round. The Far North was then given Special attention as the most important economic and strategic region. 6 years have passed and the first in the world nuclear icebreaker"Lenin" went on its first voyage. This icebreaker served 30 years in the harsh conditions of the Arctic.

Simultaneously with the icebreaker, a nuclear submarine (NPS) was being built. The government decision on its construction was signed in 1952, and in August 1957 the boat was launched. This first Soviet nuclear submarine was named "Leninsky Komsomol". She made an under-ice trip to the North Pole and returned safely to base.